Sea Power and Maritime
Affairs
Lesson 3: Oceanic Sea Power and the
Emergence of European Nation States, 1400s1763
Learning Objectives

Comprehend the importance of sea borne
commerce and square-rigged ocean-going
merchantmen and warships to Europe's
emergence from the Middle Ages.
 Know the important voyages of discovery and
the reasons they were organized.
 Comprehend the succession of great
maritime powers in the 15th through the 17th
centuries (Portugal, Spain, the Netherlands,
Britain) and the reasons for the rise of each
and the decline of all except Britain.
Learning Objectives

Comprehend the causes and significance of
the Grand Armada (1586-1588) to include the
transition from galley warfare to that between
sailing ships mounting cannon in broadsides.
 Comprehend the important historical events
and strategic goals of France and Britain in
their confrontations from the late 1600s to
1763.
Learning Objectives

Know the major effects of events in
Anglo-French relations on their colonial
possessions in North America and
around the world from the late 1600s to
1763.
Remember our Themes!

The Navy as an Instrument of Foreign
Policy
 Interaction between Congress and the Navy
 Interservice Relations
 Technology
 Leadership
 Strategy and Tactics
 Evolution of Naval Doctrine
Age of Sail
The 16th Century through the 19th Century.
Western Europe Emerges

Major player in international trade and
commerce
– Dissimilar climate, geography, and peoples
– Navigable rivers and surrounding coastal waters
– Growth of middle class of artisans, merchants, and
tradesmen.
– Development of systems of exchange, banking,
investment, and insurance.
– Rise in disposable income created demands for
foods and goods from other continents.
Sailing Ships


Galleys useless on Atlantic Ocean due to high sea states and
poor weather.
Merchant ships developed into caravels and then galleons.
– Forecastles and aftercastles developed.
– Initially grappling hooks are used for boarding enemy ships,
then cannon are used to attack at longer range.

Improvements in navigation.
– Magnetic compass and “dead reckoning” or DR.
– Angle of stars above the horizon provided latitude.
– Allowed longer voyages away from land.
Age of Exploration

Portugal: Prince Henry the Navigator
– Bartholomew Diaz - Cape of Good Hope - 1486
– Vasco da Gama - India - 1497 -- Conflict with Arabs.
– Cabral - Brazil - 1500

Spain - Large empire established in the Americas.
– Columbus - Americas - 1492
Named for Amerigo Vespucci
– Magellan - Circumnavigation of the Globe - 1519-1522
– “The Conquistadors” of America
 Balboa - Panama - 1513
 Ponce de Leon - Florida - 1513
 Cortez - Mexico (Aztec Empire) - 1520
 Pizarro - Peru (Inca Empire) - 1532

Prince Henry
of
Portugal
“The Navigator”
Vasco de
Gama
Christopher
Columbus
Admiral
of the
Ocean Seas
Ferdinand
Magellan
Early European Colonization

Treaty of Tordesillas - 1494
– Papal division of the world to regulate exploration and
colonization by Portugal and Spain.
 England, Holland, and France begin exploration - 1500’s.
– Ignore Treaty of Tordesillas.
– European competition for overseas colonies begins.

Mercantilism - Colonies needed to support economic growth.
– Colonies established in areas in Caribbean and Latin America not
already claimed by Portugal and Spain.
– England: Eastern coast of present-day United States.
– France: Canada and Louisiana
– Holland: New York area, South Africa and challenge of Portugal
in Indian Ocean and East Indies.
Spain vs. England
(1567-1604)

Spain = Superpower
– Conflicts with France for N Europe, Turkey for the
Med.

Spanish Netherlands revolts and serves as
distraction from quest for Sea Control.
– Spanish king, Philip II sends large army to Netherlands,
1566.

England’s options limited, creates “Cold War”
King
Phillip II
Queen
Elizabeth I
The Spanish Armada, 1567-1585
1588 - The Spanish Armada
English Fleet
 34 large warships
 163 smaller vessels
Spanish Armada
 62 large warships
 68 smaller vessels

2,000 guns

1,100 guns

16,000 men

27,000 men
Advantage:
 Range/Accuracy of Weapons
 Maneuverability
 Leadership
Advantage:
 Pounds per Gun
– Total weight of broadside.
 Personnel
The English Upper Hand

Spanish: Duke of Medina Sidonia
 English: Charles Howard of Effingham, Lord Admiral of
England
 Tactics
–
“Weather Gage” effectively utilized by British.

–
Now able to “off-fight” with longer range guns.

–
Held upwind position.
Previously ships had to make physical contact to engage.
Maneuverability now more important.

English had superior seamanship skills.
Route
of the
Spanish Armada
Defeat of the Spanish
Armada

Spanish defeated in English Channel.
– Many Spanish ships wrecked in North Sea storm.
– Spain and its empire begin a long period of decline.
– England begins to establish overseas colonies - America.

English Lesson:
– Decisions at sea were henceforth to be reached not by hand-to-
hand combat but with the gun
England sends a fleet to fight the Spanish
Rise of English Sea Power

Mid-1500’s - England begins to develop a standing fighting
fleet under Henry VIII.
 Sea power vital to English (British) victory in a series of
conflicts with other European powers:
– Spain (1567-1604)
– Holland (1652-1674)
– France (1689-1815)

English Navy is of primary importance to the defense of
England and its growing overseas empire.
– Designated Royal Navy in 1660 by King Charles II.

England (including Wales) and Scotland form United
Kingdom of Great Britain in 1707 and add Ireland in 1801.
– British Empire continues to grow overseas.

Naval tactics developed and formalized.

Forecastles and Aftercastles eliminated.
– Increased speed and stability.

Multiple decks with gunports.
– More guns added.

Full-rigging.
– Faster speeds.

Many sailors.
– Needed to man
sails and guns.
Men of War
Men
of
War
Rate
1
2
3
4
5
6
Guns
> 100
80-100
60-80
50-60
30-44
20-28
Propulsion:
Weapons:
Formation:
Decks
3
3
2
1-2
1
1
Sail
Guns (Broadside)
Line-Ahead
Notes
Ships of the Line (Flag)
Ships of the Line (Flag)
Ships of the Line (Private)
Cruisers (Flag)
Cruisers (Frigates)
Cruisers (Sloops, Brigs &
Schooners)
Man of War- Ship of the Line
Anglo-Dutch Wars (1652-1674)

Series of three naval wars. (1652-54, 1665-67, 1672-74)
– Dutch United Provinces gain maritime trade monopolies.
 Use dominant sea power to advantage after independence from Spain in
1609.
– Challenged by Cromwell’s England: Builds the Navy
– Navigation Act, 1651
Anglo-Dutch Wars (1652-1674)

Dutch weaknesses
– Dependent upon sea for livelihood
– Had to fortify land frontier
– Did not have ships of the line
– Not tactically savvy (vis-à-vis British)
Anglo-Dutch Wars (1652-1674)

English naval tactics developed: “Fighting
Instructions”
–
“Line ahead” formations become standard.

–

Provides ability to fire “broadsides” at enemy fleet.
Royal Navy debates between Formal and Melee
schools.
Dutch loses possessions in North America.
–
–
Hudson Valley and New Amsterdam (New York City)
Fatal weaknesses: Dependent on sea, threats from other
continental powers, configured for shallow water.
Wind
Line Ahead Formations
Weather Gage
Lee Gage
Fleet Advantages

Weather Gage
– Held by the upwind fleet.
– Ability to determine the time and range of engagement
of the enemy fleet.

Lee Gage
– Held by the downwind fleet.
– Ability to determine the time of disengagement from
the enemy fleet.
Wind
Line Ahead Formations
Weather Gage
Lee Gage
Ships of the Line

Only heavily gunned ships able to remain in line
ahead formation during battle.
– Greater than 80 guns required.

Smaller ships (cruisers) detached for patrol,
reconnaissance, blockade, and attacks on enemy
merchant ships (commerce raiding).
 Fleet with better gunnery skills can gain the
advantage.
– Importance of training sailors to fire guns rapidly and
accurately.
Wind
Formal Tactics
Wind
Formal Tactics
Wind
Formal Tactics
Melee Tactics Theory

To gain the advantage, one needs to concentrate
firepower against the enemy fleet.
– Allows a superior weight of broadside.

A conterminous line-ahead formation does not allow
firepower to be massed.
 Must maneuver the fleet to gain the advantage in
firepower.
– Massing
– Doubling
– Breaking the Line
Wind
Melee Tactics
Wind
Melee Tactics
“Massing”
Wind
Melee Tactics
Wind
Melee Tactics
“Doubling”
Wind
Melee Tactics
Wind
Melee Tactics
“Breaking the Line”
Anglo-French Conflicts (1689-1775)

Great Britain fears France's threat to become militarily
dominant in Europe.
– Continental element:


France Army 5-to1 to the British
Britain monetarily and militarily subsidies her continental allies
– Maritime element:





Britain prospered through commerce across the Atlantic
Royal Navy “shows the flag” from warships
Britain gaining timber and Naval supplies from the Baltic.
Britain maintained a fleet twice the size of France
Permanent Fighting Instructions adopted by Royal Navy.
– Results of sea battles support the use of formal tactics.
Wind
Van
Permanent
Fighting Instructions
Center
Rear
Tactics

French Navy - Defensive
– Desired to hold the lee gage.

Able to retire in order to save ships.

Unable to devote resources to Navy due to wars in Europe.
– Fired on the “up roll” to target rigging (masts and sails).


Reduce British ability to maneuver into attack position.

Few British casualties.
Royal Navy - Offensive
– Desired to hold the weather gage.

Advantage to the attacking fleet.
– Fired on the “down roll” into the enemy hulls

Splinters and debris killed and maimed French gun crews.
– High numbers of French casualties.
Wind
British Fleet
French Fleet
Anglo-French Conflicts (1689-1775)

War of English Succession (1689-1697)
– English goal: Contain French aggression; maintain balance of
power on continent of Europe.
– Battle of Beachy Head (1690), Battle of Barfleur (1692)
– Louis XIV lost the war; France abandoned its continental
conquests; acknowledged William of Orange as King of
England.

War of Spanish Succession (1703-1713)
– Britain acquires possessions of France and her allies (e.g., Spain,
Gibraltar)
– Battle of Malaga: Tactically indecisive, but French "flinched
under bombardment" and retreated to port.
– Great Britain was now leader in maritime commerce and clearly
the "Mistress of the Seas."
Seven Years’ War (1756-1763)
Battle for Minorca
20 May 1756

April 1756 French amphibious landing on
Minorca
 British attempt to send reinforcements
 Formal Fighting Instructions prevented
maneuvers
 Refocused interest on more flexible tactics
Seven Years’ War (1756-1763)

Significance:
– Geopolitical: Genuine world war; fought in German states,
Mediterranean, Canada, West Indies, India, Africa, and
Philippines.
– Strategic: Classic example of conflict between land power
(France) and sea power (England).

Great Britain Key to victory:
– “Pitt's Plan” of William Pitt the Elder.
 “Hitting”
- Attack overseas colonies of France and Spain.
 “Holding” - French battle fleet through blockade of ports.
– Support continental allies: Frederick the Great of Prussia.
“Pitt’s Plan”

Subsidize one or more allies on Continent
 Use own fleet to
– raid enemy coasts, thereby holding enemy
troops away from allies
– blockade enemy and destroy his fleet
– convoy and support own troops in seizing
enemy’s overseas colonies and associated
seaborne trade
Seven Years’ War (1756-1763)

French counter-strategy
– Raid British maritime commerce
– Defend French Colonies
– Try to invade England

Known as “French and Indian War” in America.
–
–

British Siege of Quebec - 1759.
 Wolfe defeats Montcalm on the Plains of Abraham.
British defeat French at Battle of Quiberon Bay - 1759.
Peace of Paris - 1763
–
Great Britain obtains Canada, U.S. East of Mississippi
River to Appalachian Mts., Florida, and much of India.
Siege of Quebec
Battle of Quiberon Bay - 1759

Royal Navy establishes absolute control of the sea.
 French plan to invade Great Britain is thwarted.
Ongoing debate????
Lessons from the Seven Years’ War
 Potter, Nimitz, Mahan will conclude:

– Naval power, or sea power, was "pervasive and
inexorable."
– Naval predominance was decisive in a world war.

Paul Kennedy will conclude:
– Sea power was only one component of British strategy
during the period.
– A "continental" element was always present in the
British considerations.