Research Tools and Techniques
The Research Process: Step 6 (Research Design
– Element 5 Part B Continued Measurement and
Measures – Attitudinal Scales Continued and
Goodness of Measures)
Lecture 17
Lecture Topics Covered Previously in the
Last Lecture
• Statistics Applied to the Four Scales
• Attitudinal Scales Derived from Four Basic Scales
• Rating and Ranking Scales
What we are going to Cover in this
Lecture
• Rating and Ranking Scales
• Goodness of Measures
• Reliability and Validity of Measures
THE RESEARCH PROCESS
(1).
Observation
The Broad
Problem Area
(3).
(4).
Theoretical
Framework
Problem
Definition
Variables
Identification
(5)
(6).
Scientific
Research
Design
Generation
of
Hypothesis
(2).
Preliminary
Data
Gathering
Interviews
and Library
Search
(7).
Data
Collection
and
Analysis
(8)
Deduction
(9).
(10).
(11).
Report
Writing
Report
Presentation
Managerial
Decision
Making
THE ELEMENTS OF RESEARCH DESIGN
1. Purpose of
Study
•Exploratory
•Descriptive
•Hypothesis
Testing
•Case Study
2. Type of
Investigation
Establishing:
Causal
Relationship
or
Co-relational
3. Extent of
Researcher
Interference
•Minimal
•Moderate
•Excessive
4. Study Setting
•Contrived
•Non-Contrived
5.
Measurement
& Measures
•Operational
Definition
•Scaling
•Categorizing
•Coding
10. Test
Application
Feel for
Data
Goodness
of Data
6.Unit of Analysis
(Population to be
studied)
Individuals
Dyads
Groups
Organizations
Machines
etc.
8. Time Horizon
7. Sampling
Design
Probability
Non-probability
Sample Size (n)
One-Shot
(Cross-Sectional)
or
Longitudinal
9. Data
Collection
Method
Observation
Interview
Questionnaire
Physical
Measurement
Hypotheses
Testing
7. Fixed or Constant Sum Scale
• When buying a soap; give marks out of 100
•
•
•
•
•
•
to the importance you attach to (the
aggregate should be 100)
Fragrance
______
Color
______
Shape
______
Size
______
Texture of Lather ______
Total
______
8. Staple Scale
• This scale simultaneously measures both the
direction and intensity of the attitude under study
• Example
+3
+3
+2
+2
+1
+1
Adopting Modern Coordination
Technology Among Employees
-1
-1
-2
-2
-3
-3
+3
+2
+1
Company
Development Future
-1
-2
-3
9. Graphic Rating Scale:
II. Ranking Scales
1. Paired Comparison:
• [(n)(n-1)/2] Choices
• Lux,
Rexona,
1. Lux
Rexona
2. Lux
Dove
3. Lux
Fa
4. Rexona Dove
5. Rexona Fa
6. Dove
Fa
Dove,
Fa
2. Forced Choice Scale:
• Example: Rank the following holiday
destinations in order of your
preference, assigning 1 for the most
preferred choice and 5 for the least
preferred
Aspen ___
Florida ___
London ___
Bermuda ___
Hawaii ___
Prefer More
Prefer Less
Aspen
Bermuda
Florida
Hawaii
London
3. Comparative Scale
• If you buy a Warid Sim as compared to
Telenor; is it
• More Useful
Useful
•
1
About the Same
2
3
Less
4
5
GOODNESS OF MEASURES: RELIABILITY &
VALIDITY
Reliability: (Accuracy in Measurement)
Attest to the consistency and stability of a measuring
instrument.
1. Stability Measure
a). Test – Retest Reliability
Correlation tests are applied.
b). Parallel Form Reliability
Two instruments measuring the same
concept are correlated.
Test-Retest Reliability Example
Employees
Data Gathered
September 1
about a variable
using an
instrument
Data Gathered
September 12
about a variable
using the same
instrument
Asim
4
4
Farooq
4
4
Mushtaq
4
4
Awais
3
3
Sadiq
2
1
Michael
1
2
Masood
3
3
Amina
4
4
Parallel Form Reliability Example:
Employees
Data Gathered
September 1
about a variable
using instrument
A
Data Gathered
September 12
about a variable
using instrument
B
Asim
4
4
Farooq
4
4
Mushtaq
4
3
Awais
3
3
Sadiq
2
1
Michael
1
2
Masood
3
3
Amina
4
4
Summary
• Rating and Ranking Scales
• Goodness of Measures
• Reliability and Validity of Measures