American Human Spaceflight
Early Missions
- Mercury & Gemini
Lunar Missions
Apollo-Soyuz Test Project
(ASTP)
Select
Image
Space Stations
Reference Information
Space Shuttle
Future Missions
1
Mercury - 1958 to 1963
The idea of human spaceflight
has been in the mind of humans
throughout recorded history. By
the late 1950s, technology had
developed to the level ideas
could be transformed into
hardware to achieve human
spaceflight.
In 1959, NASA asked the U.S.A.
military services to list members
who met specific qualifications.
The search was underway for
pilots for the new manned
spaceflight program. The first
seven NASA Astronauts for
Project Mercury were
announced on April 9, 1959.
Front row - left to right - Walter
Schirra, Donald Slayton, John
Glenn, and Scott Carpenter.
Back row - Alan Shepard, Virgil
“Gus” Grissom, and Gordon
Cooper.
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Mercury Chimp “Ham” Prepares for Test Flight
On January 31, 1961, a 44-month old
chimpanzee, named Ham, was the first
higher primate launched into outer space.
Ham is shown trying out his combination
couch and life support system on January
28, 1961 in preparation for his flight.
Ham was secured in a Mercury capsule
atop the Mercury Redstone-2 (MR-2) rocket
and launched from Cape Canaveral, FL.
During the flight, Ham successfully pushed
a lever within five seconds after seeing a
flashing blue light. Failure resulted in
negative reinforcement in the form of an
electric shock to the soles of his feet. He
landed 422 miles downrange after a 16.5
minute flight. Ham's capsule landed in the
Atlantic Ocean and was recovered by a
rescue ship. After the flight Ham lived for
17 years in the National Zoo in Washington
D.C., then at the North Carolina Zoo before
dying at the age of 27 on January 19, 1983.
The MR-2 flight was one in a series of
flights leading to the manned orbital flights
of the Mercury program.
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Mercury
Project Mercury put the first
Americans into space.
Astronaut Alan Shepard was the first
American in space during his suborbital flight on May 5, 1961 aboard
Freedom 7. The Mercury – Redstone 3
rocket was launched from Pad LC-5 at
Cape Canaveral, FL.
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Mercury
Astronaut John Glenn became the first
American to orbit the Earth on February
20, 1962 aboard Friendship 7 launched
by the Mercury - Atlas 6 rocket from
Pad LC-14 at Cape Canaveral, FL.
5
Gemini - 1962 to1966
Project Gemini was an
intermediate step between
Mercury and Apollo developing
technologies needed for lunar
exploration.
Gemini-Titan 4 lift-off from Cape
Canaveral, FL carried James
McDivitt and Ed White for a fourday mission on June 3, 1965. This
flight included the first spacewalk by an American astronaut,
accomplished by Ed White.
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Gemini
On June 3, 1965,
Edward White
became the first
American to step
outside his
Gemini 4
spacecraft.
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Gemini
On December 15, 1965, Walter Schirra and
Thomas Stafford on Gemini 6 and Frank Borman
and James Lovell on Gemini 7 accomplished the
first space rendezvous. Gemini 6 views Gemini 7.
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Gemini
Gemini 11 command pilot Charles Conrad climbs from the spacecraft hatch minutes after
splashdown on September 9, 1966. Pilot Richard Gordon still has his hatch closed. U.S.
Navy frogman team attached a flotation collar to the spacecraft.
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Apollo - 1963 to 1972
The purpose of the Apollo
Program was to land men on the
lunar surface and to return them
safely to Earth. Six missions
landed on the surface of the
moon; three others orbited the
moon without landing, including
the ill-fated Apollo 13.
The Apollo 11 Saturn V space
vehicle lifted off with astronauts
Neil Armstrong, Michael Collins
and Edwin Aldrin on July 16,
1969, from Launch Complex 39A
at the Kennedy Space Center, FL.
On July 20, 1969, Neil Armstrong
became the first human to walk
on the moon.
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Apollo
Apollo 16 Lunar Module (LM) pilot Charles
Duke photographed this Descartes Highlands
landing site on April 21, 1972. Commander
John Young is to the right of the LM and
directly behind the Lunar Roving Vehicle.
Thomas Mattingly remained with the Command
and Service Module (CSM) in lunar orbit.
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Apollo
The Apollo 16 CSM approached the LM on April 23, 1972 for their final rendezvous.
Aboard the LM, John Young and Charles Duke returned to the CSM in lunar orbit after
three successful days on the lunar surface. Thomas Mattingly piloted the CSM.
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Apollo
The photograph of the Earth rising over the Moon's horizon was taken from the Apollo 11
CSM in July 1969.
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Apollo-Soyuz Test Project (ASTP) - 1975
ASTP was the first human spaceflight
mission conducted jointly by two nations.
This led to future cooperative missions.
Soyuz was launched prior to the American
Apollo launch on the same day. The two
spacecrafts docked on July 17, 1975 and
joint operations were conducted for two full
days. The docking module served as an
airlock and transfer corridor between the
two spacecrafts.
Astronaut Donald Slayton and cosmonaut
Aleksey Leonov are shown in Soyuz.
Apollo Command
and Service Module
Docking
Module
Soyuz
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Skylab- 1973 to 1974
Skylab, the first American space station, was adapted from the
third stage of an Apollo Saturn V rocket and launched into orbit on
May 14, 1973. Three successive crews of three astronauts each
occupied Skylab. The longest mission, ending on February 8, 1974,
lasted almost three months.
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Skylab
Skylab 3 astronaut Jack Lousma takes a shower
in the crew quarters of the Orbital Workshop
(OWS) on July 1, 1973.
Skylab 4 astronauts Gerald Carr (right) and
William Pogue are shown in the OWS on
February 1, 1974.
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Seven American astronauts spent nearly 1000 days
living in orbit with cosmonauts on the Russian space
station Mir. American shuttles rendezvoused ten times
with Mir. The Shuttle-Mir Program prepared the way for
the International Space Station and began an era of
cooperation and exploration. Soyuz cosmonauts took
the photograph during a fly-around on July 4, 1995.
Shuttle / MIR - 1994 to 1998
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International Space Station (ISS) - 1998 to present
In 1998, the first two ISS modules
were launched and joined in orbit.
Other components soon followed and
the first crew arrived in 2000.
A crewmember onboard the Soyuz
TMA-20 photographed the ISS and the
docked space shuttle Endeavour after
the two spacecrafts undocked May 23,
2011.
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Space Shuttle - 1981 to 2011
The space shuttle orbiters were
the first spacecraft capable of
routinely launching into orbit
like rockets and then returning
to Earth as gliders. The
orbiters were part of the Space
Transportation System used for
scientific research and space
applications. The space shuttle
was retired in July 2011 after
Atlantis delivered 8,000 lbs of
supplies and spare parts to the
International Space Station.
The first shuttle, Columbia,
STS-1, is shown being launched
April 12, 1981 from Pad 39A at
Kennedy Space Center, FL
carrying astronauts John Young
and Robert Crippen. The Earth
orbital mission lasted 54 hours
and ended with an un-powered
landing at Edwards Air Force
Base, CA.
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Palapa B-2 and Westar VI Satellite Retrieval Mission
The Palapa B-2 and Westar VI satellites failed to achieve proper orbits during the STS-41B
mission in February, 1984. STS-51A Astronaut Dale Gardner is shown approaching the
Westar VI in November 1984 and preparing to capture the 1200 lb satellite using a
“stinger” docking device. He is propelled by the Manned Maneuvering Unit, a robotic
backpack with its own thrusters and controls. The Challenger remote manipulator arm end
effector (to the right of Gardner) later grappled the satellite and moved it to Challenger.
Astronaut Joe Allen retrieved Palapa B-2 two days earlier. After Palapa B-2 and Westar VI
were returned to Earth by Challenger, they were refurbished, relaunched and successfully
operated as communications satellites.
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Hubble Space Telescope Launch and Deployment Mission
The Hubble Space Telescope (HST) was launched on the Space Shuttle Discovery STS-31
mission on April 24, 1990. The IMAX Cargo Bay Camera shows the telescope at the
moment of release by the Discovery remote manipulator arm on April 29.
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Hubble Space Telescope First Repair Mission
After the Hubble Space
Telescope (HST) deployment,
scientists realized the primary
mirror had a flaw resulting in an
inability to focus the light.
Corrective Optics Space
Telescope Axial Replacement
(COSTAR) was developed by
Ball Aerospace as an effective
means of countering the effects
of the flawed shape of the
mirror.
On December 8, 1993, STS-061,
Space Shuttle Endeavour,
Astronaut Kathryn C. Thornton
lifts the COSTAR prior to its
installation on the HST.
Thornton is anchored to a foot
restraint on the end of the
Endeavor robotic arm.
Astronaut Thomas D. Akers,
assisting in the COSTAR
installation, is at the lower left.
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First Space Shuttle Visit to the International Space Station
Many of the International
Space Station (ISS) large
components were
transported into space by
the space shuttle. In 1998,
construction of the ISS was
just getting under way. The
first shuttle to visit the
space station was
Endeavour, which launched
on STS-88 mission on
December 4, 1998 and
carried the first American
module, the Unity node, to
the station. Unity was
connected to the first space
station segment, the
Russian Zarya module,
which Russia had launched
less than a month before on
a Russian Proton rocket.
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Endeavour Transports AMS-2 to the ISS
On May 18, 2011, the Alpha Magnetic Spectrometer-2 (AMS-2) was grasped by the space
shuttle Endeavour’s robotic arm prior to being installed on the station's starboard truss.
The AMS-2 is used in the unique environment of space to study the universe and its
origin by searching for antimatter and dark matter while performing precision
measurements of cosmic rays composition and flux.
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Human Space Exploration - Future
Concept Credit:
Lockheed Martin
The image shows a lunar flyby
mission. This could be the first of
Orion’s many planned journeys into
deep space and will allow the
preliminary testing of its operational
capabilities outside of low Earth orbit.
NASA is beginning a new era in space
exploration focusing on sending astronauts
to an asteroid and eventually to Mars.
 The NASA Authorization Act of 2010
requires the following minimum capabilities:
- The Orion Multi-Purpose Crew Vehicle (MPCV) must be able to serve as the primary
crew vehicle for missions beyond low Earth
orbit (LEO).
-- The vehicle must be able to conduct
regular in-space operations such as
rendezvous, docking and extravehicular
activity, in conjunction with payloads
delivered by the Space Launch System or
other vehicles in preparation for missions
beyond LEO.
-- The vehicle must provide an alternative
means of crew and cargo transportation to
and from the International Space Station, in
the event other vehicles, whether commercial
or partner-supplied, are unable to perform
that function.
-- The vehicle must have the capability for
efficient and timely evolution.
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Crew Exploration Vehicle Configuration
Launch
Abort
System
Crew
Module
Service
Module
Spacecraft
Adapter
Launch Abort System (LAS)
 The LAS propels the CM to safety in the event of an
emergency during launch or the climb to orbit.
 It protects the crew module from dangerous
atmospheric loads and heating then jettisons after it is
through the initial mission phase of ascent to orbit.
Crew Module (CM)
 The CM is the transportation capsule that provides a
safe habitat for the crew, storage for consumables and
research instruments, and serves as the docking port for
crew transfer.
 It is the only part of Orion that returns to Earth.
Service Module (SM)
 The SM supports the CM from launch through
separation prior to reentry.
- It provides propulsion capability for orbital transfer,
attitude control, and high altitude ascent aborts.
- The SM provides all the CM consumables needed to
maintain a habitable environment.
- It transports unpressurized cargo and scientific
payloads.
Spacecraft Adapter
 Its shroud encapsulates the SM and provides the
structural transition to the launch vehicle. The shroud is
jettisoned.
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Crew Vehicle Mission Phases
Launch
Mission
Operations
Credit: NASA and
Lockheed Martin
Launch Abort System
Jettison
Re-entry
Preparation for
Leaving Earth Orbit
Landing/Recovery
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Space Launch System
NASA will develop an advanced heavy-lift launch
vehicle that will provide an entirely new national
capability for human exploration beyond Earth's
orbit.
 The NASA Authorization Act of 2010 requires
the following minimum capabilities:
- The Space Launch System (SLS) vehicle must
be able to initially lift 154,000 - 220,000 lbs (70 100 metric-tons) to low Earth orbit, and must be
evolvable to 286,000 lbs (130 metric-tons) or
more.
- The vehicle must be able to lift an Orion MultiPurpose Crew Vehicle.
- The vehicle must be capable of serving as a
backup system for supplying and supporting
cargo and crew delivery requirements for the
International Space Station in the event such
requirements are not met by available
commercial or partner-supplied vehicles.
- The SLS rocket incorporates technological
investments from the Space Shuttle and
Constellation Programs in order to take
advantage of proven hardware and cutting-edge
tooling and manufacturing technology.
-- The SLS initial lift version is shown launching
the Orion Multi-Purpose Crew Vehicle.
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Mission - Near Earth Asteroid Minimum Capability
Concept Credit:
Lockheed Martin
Asteroids have gained significant attention
recently especially with President Obama’s
announcement in April 2010 that a human mission
to an asteroid no later than 2025 would be one of
NASA’s new exploration goals.
 Near Earth Asteroids (NEA) come close enough
to Earth that the proximity of some NEAs makes
them ideal destinations for human exploration
missions.
- An asteroid mission would have many benefits
including:
-- Astronauts could explore asteroids bringing
back samples to learn about the formation and
evolution of the solar system.
-- Improve the understanding of the threat to Earth
from asteroid impacts developing the practical
knowledge needed to protect Earth and test this
capability.
-- The feasibility of harnessing asteroid resources
could be assessed.
- Progressively, more challenging asteroid
missions could provide an opportunity to
incrementally develop the expertise needed for
long missions in deep space without the leap in
cost, complexity, duration, distance, and radiation
exposure required for missions to Mars.
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Potential Mission - Martian Moon Deimos
A Deimos mission is an achievable goal
that will set the stage for a future Mars
landing, avoiding the expense and
difficulty of developing the significant
technological advancements.
 The mission provides important
scientific and exploration value despite
not landing on the surface.
- Deimos is a far better vantage point to
explore Mars than being on the surface.
-- Astronauts stationed on Deimos can
explore more Martian sites using robots
operated via tele-operation.
- Exploration of Deimos can reveal clues
about how the Mars system came to be in
its current state.
-- The origin of Deimos is a great mystery
in the planetary science community.
--- The moon’s irregular shape, porous
composition, and low albedo (i.e., less
reflective) is comparable to C- and D-type
asteroids, but the nearly circular orbit and
negligible inclination are unexpected for a
captured object.
Concept Credit:
Lockheed Martin
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American Human Spaceflight - Reference Information
Sheet 1 of 2
Manned Maneuvering Unit Post Mission Summary Report STS 51A; Martin Marietta;
February 1985 - technical report summarizing the MMU STS 51A mission
Stepping Stones: Exploring a Series of Increasingly Challenging Destinations on the
Way to Mars; Lockheed Martin, Denver, CO - Orion missions are discussed
Red Rocks Report, Caley Buxton; Lockheed Martin, Denver, CO - includes detailed
discussion of Orion Mars missions
Images and Text:
http://grin.hq.nasa.gov/index.html
http://spaceflight.nasa.gov/
http://history.nasa.gov/
http://www.hq.nasa.gov/office/pao/History/alsj/astp/AST-5-298.jpg
http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Apollo-Soyuz-Test-Program-artist-rendering.jpg
http://images.jsc.nasa.gov/
http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/01/1990_s31_IMAX_view_of_HST_
release.jpg
Text and Additional Information:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ham_the_Chimp
http://www.jsc.nasa.gov/history/complete.htm
http://www-pao.ksc.nasa.gov/kscpao/history/mercury/mercury-overview.htm
http://www-pao.ksc.nasa.gov/kscpao/history/gemini/gemini-overview.htm
http://www.hq.nasa.gov/office/pao/History/apollo/
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American Human Spaceflight - Reference Information
Sheet 2 of 2
End
Text and Additional Information (Continued):
http://www-pao.ksc.nasa.gov/kscpao/history/skylab/skylab.htm
http://www.jsc.nasa.gov/history/complete.htm#shuttlemir
http://www.jsc.nasa.gov/history/complete.htm#shuttle
http://www.space.com/11296-memorable-space-shuttle-missions.html
http://www.ams02.org/
http://www.lockheedmartin.com/
http://www.nasa.gov/exploration/home/index.html
http://www.nasa.gov/pdf/510449main_SLS_MPCV_90-day_Report.pdf
http://www.nasa.gov/
http://www.nasa.gov/pdf/509820main_Human_Space_Exploration_Framework_Summary2010-01-11.pdf
http://spaceflightnow.com/news/n1111/10orioneft1/
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orion_(spacecraft)
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33
Human Space Exploration
Conduct a routine cadence of missions to solar system destinations including the Moon
and near Earth asteroids with the Mars’ surface as a horizon destination for human
exploration.
 The objective is a capability-driven approach to human exploration rather than one
based on a specific destination and schedule.
- Establish missions defined by multiple possible destinations.
-- Define design reference missions (DRMs) to determine required functions and
capabilities.
- Utilize common elements across all of the DRMs.
-- Size element functionality and performance to support the missions.
-- The common element and DRM analyses are still in work, but appear feasible.
- Assess key contingencies and abort scenarios to determine and allocate any
additional key element(s) capabilities.
-- Iterate element sizing and functionality to ensure key contingency and abort
scenarios are addressed.
- Establish the key driving requirements for the common elements.
-- Determine the technology needs for each element.
- Identify the key decision points for the element/capability phasing.
-- Define the decision trees/paths for the transportation architecture and destination
architecture.
- Assess the various manifest scenarios for costing and other constraint analysis.
-- Select various strategies for the acquisition approach and affordability.
- Actively seek international and commercial involvement where possible.
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Crew Vehicle
An unmanned, two orbit, Orion test flight in early 2014 was announced in November
2011.
 The flight would test Orion’s orbital ability and re-entry capabilities.
- The capsule will dive into Earth's atmosphere at more than 20,000 mph, giving
engineers key data on how the spacecraft responds to a re-entry at speeds closely
replicating what the vehicle will see when returning from deep space missions.
- A United Launch Alliance Delta 4-Heavy will be used to launch the spacecraft.
The manned crew module (CM) will hold 6 crew members for low Earth orbit (LEO)
missions and 4 for beyond LEO missions.
 A maximum of 3 astronauts flew in the smaller Apollo and 7 in the larger space shuttle.
 The CM has a 32.5° conical shape similar to the Apollo Command Module.
- It is 16.5 ft in diameter and 10.83 ft in length with a weight of 21,400 lbs (LEO) and
19,650 lbs (beyond LEO).
-- Apollo was 12.83 ft in diameter and 10.58 ft long.
 The CM will be recovered after a water landing similar to Apollo.
- The Apollo CM was used once; the Orion CM will be reused for up to 10 flights.
The service module (SM) provides support to the CM from launch through CM separation
to enable LEO and beyond LEO missions with minimal impact to the CM.
 The SM supports a 21.3 day crewed mission.
 It provides accommodation for ISS un-pressurized cargo and beyond LEO mission
equipment.
 The SM has a 16.5 ft in diameter stepped cylindrical shape that is 15.67 ft in length with
a weight of 19,418 lbs (LEO) and 27,198 lbs (beyond LEO).
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