Chapter 4:
Fingerprints
“Fingerprints can not lie,
but liars can make
fingerprints.”
—Unknown
Fingerprints
Students will learn:
 Why fingerprints are
individual evidence.
 Why there may be no
fingerprint evidence at a
crime scene.
 How computers have
made personal
identification easier.
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Fingerprints
Students will be able to:
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Define the three basic properties that
allow individual identification by
fingerprints.
Obtain an inked, readable fingerprint
for each finger.
Recognize the general ridge patterns
(loops, whorls, and arches)
Identify friction ridge characteristics
and compare two fingerprints with at
least ten points of identification.
Explain the differences among latent,
plastic, and visible fingerprints.
Develop latent prints (make them
visible) using physical and chemical
methods.
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The History of Fingerprinting
The Chinese
In the eighth century during China’s T’ang
dynasty, Chinese used thumbprints to seal
important documents and on business
contracts.
There is no record of whether they were
actually used for identification, and there
was no systematic classification.
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Quntilian, the Roman Lawyer
Made use of a bloody handprint in a
murder case in 1000 AD
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A number of people throughout history
noted fingerprints and even
commented on the different ridge
patterns.
However, the science of dactyloscopy, the study
of fingerprints,(comes from the Greek word
daktulos, meaning finger) really started in the 19th
century in India with William Herschel.
William Herschel
Highly placed civil servant who decided to
require Indians to add their fingerprint to
contracts.
Later (1877) he introduced the use of
fingerprints as a means of identifying
prisoners.
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Henry Faulds
In Japan, molded fingerprints in old pottery
piqued the interest of Henry, a health missionary
in Tokyo .
He published a scientific paper in 1880 about the
possibility of using fingerprints to identify
criminals.
Thought that fingerprints were unique.
Could be used for classification
Said fingerprints did not change over a lifetime.
First to use fingerprints to solve a crime.
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Prisoners
Identification has always been a problem
for the criminal justice system.
Prisoners were often branded or tattooed or
even had hands or fingers chopped off so
they would be recognized as criminals.
This practice was generally abolished in the
Western world in the early 1800’s.
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Photography
The advent of photography helped, but
without a means of classification, the police
records were soon overwhelmed with too
many photographs to be useful.
They often employed men with
“photographic” memories.
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Alphonse Bertillon
1881
Employed as a ledger clerk at the police
headquarters in Paris, suggested using 11 body
measurements to identify habitual offenders.
Was accepted almost everywhere.
The science of human measurements was called
anthropometry.
This was initially the system that most police
departments used for personal identification.
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Francis Galton
1891 A British anthroplogist - Published two
books in which he showed how to classify
fingerprints using loops, whorls, and arches.
He showed that:
1. a person’s fingerprints stay the same from birth until
death.
2. no two fingerprints are identical
3. prints cannot be altered
And said it is possible to classify a very large number of prints.
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Sir Edward Richard Henry
1897 – Inspector general of police in Bengal,
India.
Simplified Galton’s classification system in India
Established the Henry System of Classification
which replaced Bertillon’s system.
England’s (FBI) Scotland Yard, adopted the Henry
System
Henry System is used in most English speaking
countries.
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Juan Vucetich
1901 – Argentinean police official
Set up a workable fingerprint classification
system based on Galton’s method
Used in most Spanish speaking countries.
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Juan Vucetich
1902 – a year later, Vucetich first officially
identified a criminal using fingerprints.
In a small town in the province of Buenos Aires,
Argentina, a woman named Francesca Rojas had
murdered her two sons and blamed the attack on a
neighbor.
Using Vucetich’s methods, police identified
bloody fingerprints on a door post as Rojas’s,
which led to her confession.
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Civil Service Test
1902 – The New York Civil Service began
the practice of fingerprinting everyone who
took a civil service exam.
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Leavenworth Prison
 1903 - The death of Bertillon’s anthropomorphic
classification. . . . Mainly because . . .
 A man named Will West arrived there to serve time.
 When convicted, he received an extra severe sentence
because he was a repeat offender.
 He protested the sentence, stating that he had never been
convicted before.
 As was done with all prisoners on admission, his Bertillon
measurements were taken and compared to existing files.
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Will and William West
Prison officials were astonished to find that
another man who was serving a life term for
murder had almost identical measurements,
and even more amazing, his name was
William West . . . And he looked almost the
same as the new prisoner!
The two men’s fingerprints were taken and,
of course, were quite different!
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1903 – The New York State prison system started
fingerprinting all the inmates.
1904 – because of the William West case,
Leavenworth Penitentiary also switched to
fingerprinting as its primary means of personal
identification.
1905 – the U.S. Army began using fingerprints ,
and the U.S. Department of Justice set up the
Bureau of Criminal Identification in Washington
D.C. to centralize and standardize the use of
fingerprinting.
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1907 – The Navy began using fingerprints, and the
Bureau of Criminal Identification was moved to
Leavenworth Penitentiary.
1918 Edmond Locard recommended that 12 points
of comparison be required to prove the identity of
an individual.
1924 – the U.S. Congress established the FBI as
the central repository for all fingerprint
information.
By 1946 it held 100 million fingerprint cards.
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IAFIS
 2004 – The FBI crime lab identification section began
using the Integrated Automated Fingerprint Identification
System (IAFIS).
 It can search 47 million records in 5 minutes!
 Assuming good quality, IAFIS requires only one print for a
match!
 The final identification however, is always done by hand by a
forensic expert.
 The more than 250 million fingerprint cards already
collected are still kept on file.
 If piled on top of each other, these records would make 133 stacks
as high as the Empire State Building!
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Fundamental Principles
of Fingerprints
 1. Fingerprints are unique. A fingerprint is an
individual characteristic.
 2. Fingerprints do not change with age. A
fingerprint will remain unchanged during an
individual’s lifetime.
 3. Fingerprints display patterns. Fingerprints
have general characteristic ridge patterns that
permit them to be systematically classified.
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Classification of Fingerprints
Loops
Whorls
arches
Patterns
All fingerprints can be classified into three
basic patterns:
Loops
Whorls
Arches
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Loop
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 A loop must have one or
more ridges entering and
exiting from the same
side.
 Loops must have one delta.
 Have a core near the center.
 This is the most common
type of fingerprint.
 Types
 Radial—Opens toward
the thumb – 5%
 Ulnar—opens toward the
“pinky” (little finger) –
60%
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 Which type of
loop is this, if it
is on the right
hand? Left
hand?
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Whorl
Whorls have at least two
deltas and a core.
 Types
 Plain
 A line between two deltas will
bisect a circle – 20%
 Central Pocket
 A line between two deltas will not
bisect a circle
 Double Loop
 made of two loops.
 Accidental
 An accidental is a pattern not
covered by other categories
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Arch
Least common; simplest
An arch has friction ridges
that enter on one side of
the finger and cross to
the other side while
rising upward in the
middle.
They do NOT have type
lines, deltas, or cores.
Types
 Plain - 4%
 Tented – 1%
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Frequency of Fingerprint Patterns
Loops
Ulnar
60%
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Whorls
Radial
5%
Arches
Plain
Other
20%
10%
Plain Tented
4%
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Racial Variations
There are racial variations in the
distribution of the three patterns.
People of African ancestry have more arches
People of European background have many
loops
Asians/Orientals have a higher frequency of
whorls.
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Other Variations
Certain patterns are more likely to be found
on particular fingers; for example
Forefingers have most of the radial loops.
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Sir Richard Edward Henry
Developed a method of classifying fingerprints,
later modified by the FBI, that allowed all sets of
ten fingerprints in the world to be divided into
1,024 groups.
Secondary and even more complex classifications
were created to allow for even more groups.
This is done so that when prints are submitted to
the FBI for comparison, most of the millions of
sets of prints on file can be weeded out so that
only a few dozen sets have to compared by hand.
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Primary Classification
The Henry—FBI Classification
Each finger is given a point value
It is based on the whorl pattern.
It requires all ten fingerprints
right
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Primary Classification
Assign the number of points for each finger that has a
whorl and substitute into the equation:
right
index
right
ring
left
thumb
left
left
middle little + 1
right
thumb
right
middle
right
little
left
index
left
ring
=
+1
That number is your primary classification number
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Complete Your Henry System
Classification
The Anatomy of a Fingerprint
Human skin is the body’s first line of
defense against invasion and infection.
The hills and valleys (ridges and grooves)
you saw when examining your fingers with
a magnifying glass make up the skin pattern
that is yours alone.
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Identical Twins . . .
Friction ridges as they are called, can also
be found on your palms, feet, and lips.
Most amazing, the patterns made by the
friction ridges are not genetically
controlled, so even identical twins who have
the same “DNA fingerprint” will have
different fingerprints.
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Skin and Papillae
 Is made up an outer
epidermal layer separated
from the inner dermal part
by the papillae.
 The papillae form a
boundary that determines
the friction ridge structure
of the epidermis.
 The friction ridge
pattern of a fingerprint
is established by the
dermal papillae.
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Chemically or physically erasing the
epidermal structure, as John Dillinger tried
to do, causes only pain because the original
print will soon grow back.
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Sweat pores along the ridges release perspiration,
which is 98 – 99 % water.
So, a fingerprint is composed mostly of water.
It is estimated that a fingerprint initially may
weight 0.1 milligram, so after evaporation of the
water, we have left about 1 microgram of residue.
This residue is made up of half salt and half
complex organic compounds such as amino
acids, lipids, vitamins, and additional body oils
picked up on the finger by touching oily or
hairy parts of the body.
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This doesn’t leave much for
the investigator to work with!
Individualization
Ridge Classification
Individualization of Fingerprints
You have now classified fingerprints
according to general patterns or groups, but
to individualize them, you must use the fine
structure of ridge characteristics or
minutiae.
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unitedstreaming.com - Search Results:
fingerprinting
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Ridge Characteristics
Minutiae—characteristics of ridge patterns
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Ridge ending
Short ridge
Dot or fragment -about as
long as it is wide
Bifurcation – a single friction
ridge that splits into two
ridges.
Double bifurcation
Trifurcation
Bridge
Island
Enclosure
Spur
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Fingerprint Minutiae
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Comparison
 There are no legal
requirements in the
United States on the
number of points..
Generally, criminal
courts will accept 8 to
12 points of similarity
when comparing
fingerprints for a match.
 There are 150 – 200
minutiae in a properly
rolled fingerprint.
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Changes in Fingerprints????
Certain professions can affect a fingerprint.
For example:
The ridges of a concrete worker and plasterer
can become rather indistinct over time because
of the alkalinity of cement and gypsum can
dissolve proteins.
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John Dillinger
Public Enemy Number One in the early
1930’s paid a doctor $5,000, plus $25 per
day for room and board to “dissolve” his
fingerprints and perform some minor
surgery on his face.
Was a notorious bank robber who tried
to remove his fingerprints by using a
corrosive acid
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John Dillinger
He had the outer layers of the skin (the epidermis)
removed by acid and had plastic surgery
performed on his face to conceal his identity.
The operation created lots of scar tissue that
obscured the ridges in the centers of his fingers,
but there were still plenty of minutiae for
identification.
He was shot and killed on July 22, 1934, during
the famous “lady in red” incident outside the
Biograph Theater.
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“Lady in Red”
The term lady in red derives from the incident in
which the FBI was looking for Dillinger, and an
informant, Ana Cumpanas, stepped forward and
said she would be going to the theater with him in
the near future.
She wanted the cash reward offered for the
capture of Dillinger and to be allowed to stay in
the United States (she was scheduled for
deportation back to Romania as an undesirable
alien).
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She was told to wear a bright red dress so that the
agents waiting outside the theater could easily spot
both her and her date, John Dillinger.
When she exited the theater, the agents attempted
to arrest the man she was with, but he fled.
The agents shot and killed the man, but there was
some question whether he was truly John
Dillinger.
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The fingerprints of the dead man were
taken, and in spite of the presence of a
tremendous amount of scar tissue, the FBI
was able to match them to those of John
Dillinger from fingerprint records taken
earlier in his career.
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Types of Prints
Plastic
Visible
Latent
1. Plastic Prints
Prints that are indented or molded
Are made by pressing a finger against a
plastic-like material to form a negative
impression of a fingerprint.
Paint, putty, soap, candle wax, gum on
envelopes or stamps, a candy bar that has
softened in ones hand.
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2. Visible Prints
Prints that are easily seen.
Left by a finger that has touched colored
material such as blood, paint, ink, grease,
chalk, mud, or sometimes dust.
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3. Latent Prints
So called “invisible” prints that must be
developed by chemical or physical means.
They result from deposits of perspiration
and body oils.
A fingerprint on the skin could be an
example of a latent print.
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Visualizing Latent Prints
Latent Prints
 Latent fingerprints are those that are not visible to the
naked eye. These prints consist of the natural
secretions of human skin and require development for
them to become visible.
 Most secretions come from three glands:
 Eccrine—largely water with both inorganic
(ammonia, chlorides, metal ions, phosphates) and
organic compounds (amino acids, lactic acids, urea,
sugars). Most important for fingerprints.
 Apocrine—secrete pheromones and other organic
materials.
 Sebaceous—secrete fatty or greasy substances.
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Developing Latent Prints
 Developing a print requires substances
that interact with secretions that cause
the print to stand out against its
background. It may be necessary to
attempt more than one technique, done
in a particular order so as not to destroy
the print.
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The first thing you want to do
after visualizing a fingerprint is
to photograph it!
Latent prints can be developed
using physical and chemical
methods.
Developing Latent Prints
Physical Methods
Dusting
Dust with a fine powder.
Most effective on hard, nonabsorbent
surfaces.
Adhere to both water and fatty
deposits.
Color is chosen to stand out against the
surface.
The developed print can then be
“lifted” by means of clear sticky tape
and collected for analysis.
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Chemical Methods of Developing
Latent Prints
Iodine fuming
Ninhydrin
Silver nitrate – physical developer
Cyanoacrylate – also called “superglue
fuming”
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Developing Latent Prints
Chemical Methods
Generally more effective for soft, porous
surfaces such as paper, Styrofoam cups,
leather, metal, etc.
Iodine Fuming
 Iodine—fumes react with oils and fats to
produce a temporary yellow brown
reaction.
 Iodine reacts with the fatty oils from the
finger to form a visible but short lasting
print.
 Works best for prints on porous paper.
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Iodine Fingerprint
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Ninhydrin
Is most commonly used with
paper and porous surfaces.
It reacts with amino acids left by
the finger to make an orange to
purple image.
Ex - matchbook
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Ninhydrin Fingerprint
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Silver Nitrate
 Also called physical developer.
 Reacts with salt left from perspiration in a dried
print to form silver chloride, a material which turns
gray when exposed to light.
 It is then converted to dark silver oxide.
 This is the same process used in developing
photographs.
 This must be a last resort because it can wash
away traces of fatty oils and proteins.
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Cyanoacrylate
 An interesting method of chemically
developing fingerprints was discovered by
accident in Japan in the late 1970’s.
 Is now widely used for developing latent
prints on nonporous surfaces such as
metals, glass, adhesive tapes, and plastic
articles
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Cyanoacrylate Fingerprints
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Cyanoacrylate
It involves evaporating superglue in an
enclosed container.
The glue, a cyanoacrylate ester, reacts
with print residues to make a white,
permanent impression that can then be
treated with powders or fluorescent dyes
to make a sharper contrast and allow
easier photography or lifting.
“super glue” fumes react with water
and other fingerprint constituents to
form a hard, whitish deposit.
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Often, the order of the steps in
developing prints is important!
When you have just one piece of evidence,
first use tests that won’t harm that evidence.
You want to get as much information as
possible, so you may have to perform
several tests.
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For example:
To get the best image of latent fingerprints,
you might first use iodine fuming; then you
might try ninhydrin.
You would save the silver nitrate method
until last because this procedure will wash
away traces of fatty oils and proteins.
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A fingerprint left at the scene
of a crime may last for years. . .
Lasers and Alterative Light
Sources
In modern labs and criminal investigations,
lasers and alternative light sources are
used to view latent fingerprints.
These were first used by the FBI in 1978.
Since lasers can damage the retina of the eye,
special precautions must be taken.
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Other Prints
 Ridge characteristics can be also found on
footprints and palm prints.
 Modern labs also utilize other evidences:
 Ears—shape, length and width
 Voice—electronic pulses measured on a spectrograph
 Foot—size of foot and toes; friction ridges on the foot
 Shoes—can be compared and identified by type of shoe,
brand, size, year of purchase, and wear pattern.
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Other Prints
Palm—friction ridges
can be identified and
may be used against
suspects.
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Other Prints
Footprints are
taken at birth as a
means of
identification of
infants.
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Other Prints
Lips—display several
common patterns
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Short vertical lines
Short horizontal lines
Crosshatching
Branching grooves
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Other Prints
Teeth—bite marks
are unique and can
be used to identify
suspects. These
imprints were placed
in gum and could be
matched to crime
scene evidence.
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Other Prints
The blood vessel
patterns in the eye
may be unique to
individuals. They are
used today for various
security purposes.
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Biometrics
 Use of some type of body metrics for the purpose of
identification. (The Bertillon system may actually have been
the first biometry system.)
 Used today in conjunction with AFIS
 Examples include retinal or iris patterns, voice
recognition, hand geometry
 Other functions for biometrics—can be used to control entry
or access to computers or other structures; can identify a
person for security purposes; can help prevent identity theft
or control social services fraud.
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More about Prints
For additional information about prints and
crime, check out Court TV’s Crime Library
www.crimelibrary.com/criminal_mind/forensics/fing
erprints/1.html
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