Definisi Desain Penelitian

advertisement
Chapter 3
Business Research Design
(Desain Penelitian Bisnis)
• Definisi Desain Penelitian
• Jenis-jenis desain penelitian
1
Definisi Desain Penelitian

Kerangka (framework)/cetak biru
(blueprint) yang berisikan rencana dan
prosedur untuk mengarahkan penelitian
(mengumpulkan, mengukur, dan analisa
data) menjawab masalah penelitian
(research questions).
2
Clarifying the Research Question
Exploration
Discover the Management Dilemma
Define the Research Questions
Refine the Research Questions
Research
Proposal
Research Design Strategy
(type, purpose, time frame, scope, environment)
Data Collection
Sampling
Design
Design
Instrument Development
And Pilot Testing
Data Collection & Preparation
Data Analysis and Interpretation
Research Reporting
Management
Decision
Exploration
T
A
H
A
P
A
N
P
E
N
E
L
I
T
I
A
N
3
Research Design
Research
Proposal
Research Design Strategy
(type, purpose, time frame, scope, environment)
Data Collection
Design
Sampling
Design
Instrument Development
& Pilot Testing
Data Collection & Preparation
4
Types of Research Design
Research Design
Conclusive
Research Design
Exploratory
Research Design
Descriptive
Research
Cross-Sectional
Design
Single CrossSectional Design
Causal
Research
Longitudinal
Design
Multiple CrossSectional Design
Sumber: Malhotra, 2004; Zikmund, 2002
5
Menentukan Desain Penelitian
Apakah tujuan penelitian
spesifik & data yg
dibutuhkan sudah jelas?
Tidak
Penelitian
Eksploratori
Penelitian
Konklusif
Analisis Data &
Intepretasi Hasil
Ya
Perlu Penelitian
Lanjutan?
Ya
Tidak
Perlu uji hubungan
kausal ?
Penelitian Deskriptif
Ya
Penelitian Kausal
Tidak
Analisis Data & Intepretasi Hasil
Beri Rekomendasi
6
Exploratory Studies

Bila gagasan/persoalan yang diteliti
kurang jelas, lakukan penelitian/studi
eksplorasi.

Melalui studi eksplorasi dapat
dikembangkan konsep yang lebih jelas,
menetapkan prioritas penelitian,
mengembangkan definisi operasional,
atau memperbaiki desain penelitian.
7
Faktor
Pembeda
Tujuan
Data yg
dibutuhkan
Sumber data
Riset Eksploratori
Umum, untuk menemukan
pandangan awal ttg suatu
situasi
Samar
Kurang terdefinisi
Riset Konklusif
Spesifik, untuk
memperoleh informasi
bagi pengambilan
keputusan
Jelas
Terdefinisi dgn baik
Sampel
Umumnya kecil, dipilih secara
subjektif, yg dapat memberi
pandangan (insight)
Relatif besar, dipilih
secara objektif agar
hasil dpt digeneralisasi
Pengumpulan
data
Fleksibel, tidak perlu prosedur
Ketat, perlu prosedur
yg jelas
Analisis data
Informal, umumnya tidak
kuantitatif
Kesimpulan,
rekomendasi
Cenderung sementara
Sumber: Malhotra, 2004; Zikmund, 2002
Formal, umumnya
kuantitatif
Cenderung final
8
Desain dan Metode Penelitian
DESIGN
EKSPLORATIF
1. Teknik Kualitatif
2. Analisis Data
Sekunder
METODE 3. Experience Survey
4. Focus Group
Discussion (FGD)
5. Two-Stage Design
DESKRIPTIF
Cross Sectional Longitudinal
KAUSAL
Design
Design (CSD)
Single Multiple
CSD
CSD
Eksperimen
1. Survei
2. Observasi Tidak Terstruktur
3. Analisis Data Sekunder
4. Panel
5. Interrelationship Studies
(metode korelasional)
9
Studi Eksplorasi: Teknik Kualitatif
Studi eksplorasi dapat dilakukan dg teknik kuantitatif maupun
kualitatif. Dalam praktek, lebih banyak teknik kualitatif.
Teknik Kualitatif yang dapat digunakan antara lain:
• Individual Depth Interview
• Participant Observation
• Film, Photographs, & videotape
• Projective techniques & psychological testing
• Case studies
• Street ethnography
• Elite or expert interviewing
• Document analysis (to evaluate historical or contemporary
confidential)
• Proxemics and kinesics (use of space and body motion
communication)
10
Studi Eksplorasi:
Secondary Data Analysis

Langkah awal studi eksplorasi adalah
mencari data sekunder melalui literatur.

Bahan-bahan data sekunder adalah
dokumen-dokumen yang telah dipublikasikan
berbagai perusahaan/peneliti.
11
Example: Vans Incorporated





Secondary data shows:
• Lots of skaters were in trouble with the law
for skating around the city.
• There were not too many places for
skaters go skating safely.
Idea: Opening large skate parks next to
shopping malls.
Primary research was conducted to assess
consumer preferences & the demand for large
skate parks next to malls  research results
confirmed this.
Decision:
• The park opened in 1998, attendance
250,000 went over target of 100,000
skaters.
• In 2002, Vans opened its 11th park in
Orlando.
Conclusion: research which started with
analysis of secondary data had led to
successful expansion strategy.
12
Studi Eksplorasi:
Experience Survey

Experience Survey dilakukan dengan
menginterview orang-orang secara individual
maupun kelompok.

Peneliti harus menggali gagasan-gagasan
orang yang diwawancarai tentang isu-isu
penting atau aspek-aspek dari subyek dan
menemukan apa yang penting.
13
Repositioning Diet Cherry Coke
 2001, sales down more than 8 million cases.
 Industry experts consultation  Diet Cherry Coke
was not positioned correctly.
 Brand image was a key factor influencing soft drink
sales.
 It was perceived as conventional & old fashioned,
inconsistent with Cherry Coke.
 Research to measure the image & positioning of Diet
Cherry Coke  confirmed the experts’
 Brand then repositioned to align it more closely to the
image of Cherry Coke.
 Targeted younger drinkers.
 Packaging was remade consistent with Cherry Coke.
Placed with Cherry Coke in a teen-targeted
promotional giveaway.
 Sales recovered.
14
Studi Eksplorasi:
Focus Group Discussions (FGD)






Free flowing (1-3 hours)
Group interview (8-10 people)
Guided by moderator
Start with broad topic & focus in
on specific issues
Using videocassettes & tapes
The most common uses are:
•
•
•
•
•
Testing advertising copy or
marketing promotions
Positioning products or services
Testing new concepts
Testing usability of a product
Generate new ideas
15
When to Avoid Focus Groups



Focus groups should not be used to make a final decision.
Results of focus groups are not statistically valid and should be used
more as a thermometer to test the temperature of the market rather
than as a ruler to provide precise measurements.
Likewise, the following represent good examples of when to avoid
using focus groups  When you need a numerical response to questions
like “what percentage…?” or “how many…?”





Focus groups do not provide quantitative results.
When you need to explore issues that are very personal or sensitive
in nature.
People are not really comfortable discussing personal topics in a
group situation.
When you want to set prices for your products or your services.
Again, these results are not quantitative in nature hence it is not
advisable to make final pricing decisions based on small group
responses.
16
Studi Deskriptif
Bentuk studi Deskriptif lebih formal dan terstruktur
dibanding eksplorasi, dengan pernyataan (hipotesis)
dan pertanyaan investigatif yang lebih jelas.
Studi deskriptif digunakan menjawab tujuan penelitian,
seperti berikut:
 Deskripsi fenomena atau karakteristik terkait dengan
sebuah populasi (who, what, when, where, and how)
 Estimasi proporsi populasi yang memiliki karakteristik/
perilaku tertentu
 Menentukan persepsi ttg karakteristik produk
 Menemukan asosiasi di antara berbagai variabel
(correlational study)
17
Descriptive Research
Time-frame of research…
Cross-sectional design
(CSD)
 Longitudinal design

18
Studi Cross-sectional
vs Longitudinal

Studi cross-sectional dilakukan pada
suatu titik waktu tertentu yg bersamaan
dari berbagai tempat yg berbeda.

Studi longitudinal dilakukan pada
berbagai pengulangan sepanjang
rentang waktu tertentu dari suatu tempat
yang sama.
19
Cross-Sectional Designs



The collection of information from any given
sample of population elements only once.
Single cross-sectional designs: only one
sample of respondents and information is
obtained from this sample only once.
Multiple cross-sectional designs: two or
more samples of respondents, and
information from each sample is obtained
only once. Often, information from different
samples is obtained at different times.
20
Longitudinal Designs
A fixed sample (or samples) of
population elements is measured
repeatedly on the same variables
 A longitudinal design differs from a
cross-sectional design in that the
sample or samples remain the same
over time

21
Cross-Sectional Data
may not Show Change
Brand Purchased
Time Period
Period 1
Survey
Brand A
Brand B
Brand C
Total
200
300
500
1000
Period 2
Survey
200
300
500
1000
22
Longitudinal Data may Show
Substantial Change
Brand
Purchased
in Period 1
Brand A
Brand B
Brand C
Total
Brand Purchased in Period 2
Brand A
100
25
75
200
Brand B
50
100
150
300
Brand C
50
175
275
500
Total
200
300
500
1000
23
Studi Kausalitas

Studi Kausalitas: jenis penelitian yang
ditujukan untuk menjawab permasalahan mengapa.

Contoh: Mengapa kinerja perusahaan
menurun? Karena dipengaruhi oleh faktor…
(terjadi hubungan kausalitas (sebab-akibat)
Perhatian:
Jika hanya hubungan korelasi bukan
merupakan hubungan kausalitas

24
Studi Kausalitas
Jenis-jenis hubungan (relationship) kausalitas:
1. Symmetrical Relationship. Bentuk hubungan
dimana dua variabel berubah bersama-sama, dg
asumsi perubahan masing-masing variabel
bukan karena perubahan variabel yang lain.
2. Reciprocal Relationship. Terjadi jika dua
variabel saling memengaruhi satu sama lain.
3. Asymmetrical Relationship. Bentuk ini terjadi
jika perubahan satu variabel (variabel
independen) berakibat pada perubahan variabel
lain (variabel dependen)
25
Potential Sources of Error in Research Designs
Total Error
Non-sampling
Error
Sampling Error
Response
Error
Researcher
Error
Surrogate Information Error
Measurement Error
Problem Definition Error
Data Analysis Error
Interviewer
Error
Respondent Selection Error
Questioning Error
Recording Error
Cheating/dishonest Error
Sumber: Malhotra, 2004; Zikmund, 2002
Non-response
Error
Respondent
Error
Inability Error
Unwillingness Error
26
Errors in Research Design



Total error is the variation between the true
mean value in the population and the observed
mean value obtained in the research project.
Sampling error is the variation between the true
mean value for the population and the true mean
value for the original sample.
Non-sampling errors can be attributed to
sources other than sampling, and they may be
response/no response: including errors in
problem definition, approach, scales, questionnaire design, interviewing methods, and data
preparation and analysis.
27
Errors in Research Design


Non-response error arises when some of the
respondents included in the sample do not
respond.
Response error arises when respondents give
inaccurate answers or their answers are
misrecorded or misanalyzed.
28
Qualitative vs. Quantitative Research
Focus of research
Researcher
Involvement
Qualitative
Quantitative
Understand


High  researcher is
participant or catalyst
Research purpose

Sample design
Non
Sample size
Small
Research design




and interpret
In-depth understanding;
theory building
probability; purposive
May evolve or adjust during
the course of the project
Often uses multiple methods
simultaneously or
sequentially
Consistency is not expected
Involves longitudinal
approach.


Describe, Explain, and
predict
Limited ; controlled to
prevent bias
Describe, or predict ; build
and test theory
Probability
Large




Determined before
commencing the project
Uses single method or
mixed methods
Consistency is critical
Involves either a crosssectional or a longitudinal
approach
29
Qualitative vs Quantitative Research
Qualitative
Participant
Preparation
Data type and
preparation
Data Analysis






Pre-tasking is common
Verbal or pictorial descriptions
Reduced to verbal codes
(sometimes with computer
assistance)
Human analysis following
computer or human coding;
primarily non-quantitative
Forces researcher to see the
contextual framework of the
phenomenon being measured—
distinction between facts and
judgments less clear
Always ongoing during the
project.
Quantitative






No preparation desired to
avoid biasing the
participant
Verbal descriptions
Reduced to numerical
codes for computerized
analysis
Computerized analysis –
statistical and
mathematical methods
dominate.
Analysis may be ongoing
during the project
Maintains clear distinction
between facts and
judgment.
30
Features of Qualitative & Quantitative Research
Qualitative
Quantitative
"All research ultimately has
a qualitative grounding"
- Donald Campbell
"There's no such thing as qualitative data.
Everything is either 1 or 0"
- Fred Kerlinger
The aim is a complete, detailed description.
The aim is to classify features, count them, and
construct statistical models in an attempt to
explain what is observed.
Researcher may only know roughly in advance
what he/she is looking for.
Researcher knows clearly in advance what he/she is
looking for.
Recommended during earlier phases of research
projects.
Recommended during latter phases of research
projects.
The design emerges as the study unfolds.
All aspects of the study are carefully designed
before data is collected.
Researcher is the data gathering instrument.
Researcher uses tools, such as questionnaires or
equipment to collect numerical data.
Data is in the form of words, pictures or objects.
Data is in the form of numbers and statistics.
Subjective - individuals’ interpretation of events is
important ,e.g., uses participant observation,
in-depth interviews etc.
Objective – seeks precise measurement & analysis
of target concepts, e.g., uses surveys,
questionnaires etc.
Qualitative data is more 'rich', time consuming, and
less able to be generalized.
Quantitative data is more efficient, able to test
hypotheses, but may miss contextual detail.
Researcher tends to become subjectively immersed
in the subject matter.
Researcher tends to remain objectively separated
from the subject matter.
31
Research with Informants (Qualitative)
Research with Subjects (Quantitative)
1. What do my informants know about
their culture that I can discover?
1. What do I know about a problem that
will allow me to formulate and test a
hypothesis?
2. What concepts do my informants use
to classify their experiences?
2. What concepts can I use to test this
hypothesis?
3. How do my informants define these
concepts?
3. How can I operationally define these
concepts?
4. What folk theory do my informants
use to explain their experience?
4. What scientific theory can explain the
data?
5. How can I translate the cultural
knowledge of my informants into a
cultural description my colleagues
will understand?
5. How can I interpret the results and
report them in the language of my
colleagues?
32
Teknik-teknik Kualitatif
Teknik Kualitatif yang bisa digunakan al:
• Individual Depth Interview
• Participant Observation
• Film, Photographs and videotape
• Projective techniques and psychological testing
• Case studies
• Street ethnography
• Elite or expert interviewing
• Document analysis (to evaluate historical or contemporary
confidential)
• Proxemics and kinesics (use of space and body motion
communication)
33
Individual Depth Interview and Group Interviews
Individual Interview




Research Objective :
Explore life of individual in depth
Create case histories through repeated interview s
over time
Test a survey
Group Interview












Topic Concerns :
Detailed individual experiences, choices,
biographies.
Sensitive issues that might provoke anxiety

Participants:
Time pressed participant or those difficult to recruit
(e.g., elite or high-status participants)
Participants with sufficient language skill (e.g.,
those older than seven)
Participants whose distinction would inhibit
participation





Research Objective:
Orient the researcher to a field of inquiry and the
language of the field
Explore a range of attitudes, opinions, and
behaviors
Observe a process of consensus and
disagreement
Add contextual detail to quantitative findings
Topic Concerns :
Issues of public interest or common concern
Issues where little is known or of a hypothetical
nature
Participants :
Participants whose backgrounds are similar or
not so dissimilar as to generate conflict or
discomfort.
Participants who offer a range of positions on
issues.
34
Jenis Interviews
Wawancara tidak terstruktur
/Unstructured Interview
Interviews
Wawancara semi terstruktur
/Semi-structured Interview
Wawancara terstruktur
/Structured Interview
35
Statistical studies vs. Case Studies

Studi secara statistikal dirancang lebih untuk
mengungkapkan keluasan cakupan daripada
kedalamannya. Studi ini mencoba mengungkapkan
karakteristik suatu populasi dengan melakukan inferensi
karakteristik suatu sampel. Hipotesis-hipotesis diuji
secara kuantitatif. Generalisasi atas temuannya disajikan
berdasarkan keterwakilan sampel dan validitas dari
rancangannya.

Studi kasus lebih menekankan pada sebuah analisis
kontekstual yang menyeluruh atas kejadian-kejadian
atau kondisi-kondisi yang lebih sempit dan menekankan
interrelasinya.
36
Teknik Kualitatif: Teknik-Teknik Projektif
Word association: Participants are asked to match images,
experiences, emotions, products and services, even people and
places, to whatever is being studied.
Contoh: “Apa yang Anda pikirkan bila mendengar kata KEJU……”
Sentence completion: Participants are asked to complete a
sentence
Contoh: “Lengkapi kalimat berikut ini: Restoran yang menawarkan
diskon kartu kredit berarti… ….. “
Cartoons or empty balloons
Participants are asked to write the dialog for a cartoon-like picture
37
A Cartoon Test
……….
………
………
Giant
Let’s see if we can pick
up some house wares
at Giant
38
Teknik Kualitatif: Teknik-teknik Projektif
Component sorts: Participants are presented with a flash
cards containing component features and asked to create new
combinations
Sensory sorts: Participants are presented with scents,
textures, and sound, usually verbalized on cards, and asked to
arrange them by one or more criteria
Laddering or benefit chain: Participants are asked to
link functional features to their physical and psychological benefits,
both real and ideal
Thematic Apperception Test:
Participants are confronted
with a picture (usually a photograph or drawing) and asked to
describe how the person in the picture feels and thinks
39
Thematic Apperception Test
(TAT)
40
Teknik Kualitatif:
Teknik-teknik Projektif


Imagination exercises: Participants are asked to
relate the properties of one thing/person/brand to another.
Imaginary universe: Participants are asked to assume that
the brand and its users populate an entire universe; then they describe
the features of this new world

Visitor from another planet: Participant are asked to
assume that they are aliens and are confronting the product for the
first time; they then describe their reactions, questions, and attitudes
about purchase or retrial.

Personification. Participants are asked to imagine inanimate
objects with the traits, characteristics, and features, and personalities
of humans. “if brand X were a person, what type of person would
brand X be ?
41
Teknik Kualitatif: Teknik-teknik Projektif

Authority figure. Participants are asked to imagine that the
brand or product is an authority figure and to describe the attribute of the
figure.

Ambiguities and paradoxes. Participants are asked to
imagine a brand as something else (e.g., a Tide dog Food or Marlboro
cereal), describing its attributes and position

Semantic mapping. Participants are presented with a fourquadrant map where different variables anchor the two different axes; they
then spatially place brands, product components, or organizations within
the four quadrants

Brand mapping. Participants are presented with different brands
and asked to talk about their perceptions, usually in relation to several
criteria. They may also be asked to spatially place each brand on one or
more semantic map.
42
Contoh Brand Mapping
High moisturizing
4
7
Dove
Zest
Lever 2000
Biore
5
Nondeodorant
2
3
Lux
Coast
8
Safeguard
Deodorant
1
Giv
Lifebuoy
Medicare
6
low moisturizing
43
Download