Job Analysis and Job Design
The Challenges of Human Resources Management
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Chapter Objectives
After studying this chapter, you should be able to
LEARNING OUTCOME 1
Explain what a job analysis is, the parts that comprise it and how
the information it generates is used in conjunction with a firm’s
HRM functions.
LEARNING OUTCOME 2
Explain how the data for a job analysis typically is collected.
LEARNING OUTCOME 3
Identify and explain the various sections of job descriptions.
LEARNING OUTCOME 4
Provide examples illustrating the various factors that must be
taken into account when designing a job.
LEARNING OUTCOME 5
Discuss the various job characteristics that motivate employees.
LEARNING OUTCOME 6
Describe the different group techniques used to broaden a firm’s
job functions and maximize the contributions of employees.
LEARNING OUTCOME 7
Identify the different types of work schedules organizations are
using today to motivate their employees.
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36
What is a Job?
• Job
– A group of related
activities and duties
Job
• Position
– The different duties and
responsibilities
performed by only one
employee
Job
Job
Job
• Job Family
– A group of individual jobs
with similar
characteristics
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36
What is Job Analysis
• A job analysis is the systematic process of collecting
information about all of the parameters of a job—its basic
responsibilities, the behaviors, skills, and the physical and
mental requirements of the people who do it.
• A job analysis should also outline the tools needed to do
the job, the environment and times at which it needs to
done, with whom it needs to be done, and the outcome or
performance level it should produce.

HR managers use the data to develop job descriptions
and job specifications that are the basis for employee
performance appraisal and development.

The ultimate purpose of job analysis is to improve
organizational performance and productivity.
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36
Job Requirements
• Job Description

Statement of the tasks, duties, and responsibilities
(TDRs) of a job to be performed
• Job Specification

Statement of the needed knowledge, skills, and
abilities (KSAs) of the person who is to perform
the job

Since Griggs v Duke Power and the Civil Rights Act
of 1991, job specifications used in selection must
relate specifically to the duties of the job.
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HRM Functions Affected by a Job Analysis
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Job Analysis and the Law
• Section 14.C.2 of the Uniform Guidelines states:
– “There shall be a job analysis which includes an
analysis of the important work behaviors required for
successful performance. . . . Any job analysis should
focus on work behavior(s) and the tasks associated
with them.”
• Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA)
– Requires that job duties and responsibilities be
essential functions for job success.
– The purpose of essential functions is to help match
and accommodate human capabilities to job
requirements.
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Performing Job Analysis
1. Select jobs to study
2. Determine information to collect: Tasks,
responsibilities, skill requirements
3. Identify sources of data: Employees,
supervisors/managers
4. Methods of data collection: Interviews,
questionnaires, observation, diaries and
records
5. Evaluate and verify data collection: Other
employees, supervisors/managers
6. Write job analysis report
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Gathering Job Information
•
•
•
•
Interviews
Questionnaires
Observation
Diaries
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Controlling the Accuracy of Job
Information
• Factors influencing the accuracy of job
information
– Self-reporting exaggerations and omissions by
employees and managers
– Collecting information from a representative
sample of employees
– Capturing all important job information
• Length of job cycle exceeding observation period
• Lack of access to job site for personal observation
• Lack of familiarity with the tasks, duties, and
responsibilities of a job
• Ongoing changes in the job
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Determining Job Requirements
Nature of:
Basis for:
• What employee does
• Why employee does it
• How employee does it
• Determining job requirements
Job Analysis
Job Description
• Summary statement of the job
• List of essential functions of the
job
• Employee orientation
• Employee instruction
• Disciplinary action
Job Specification
• Personal qualifications required
in terms of skills, education and
experience
• Recruitment
• Selection
• Development
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Methods Used to Collect Job Analysis Data
• Five of the more popular methods are
1. The functional job analysis
2. The Position Analysis questionnaire system
3. The critical incident method
4. A task inventory analysis
5. A competency-based job analysis.
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Approaches to Job Analysis
• Functional Job Analysis System
– Developed by the U.S. Training and
Employment Service, the functional Job
analysis approach utilizes an inventory of the
various types of work activities that can
constitute and job. Basic activities called
worker functions are used to describe what
workers do with regard to “data, people, and
things” as part of this system.
• The DOL O*Net System
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• Position Analysis Questionnaire (PAQ)
– A questionnaire covering 194 different tasks
that, by means of a five-point scale, seeks to
determine the degree to which different tasks
are involved in performing a particular job
• Critical Incident Method
– Job analysis method by which job tasks are
identified that are critical to job success.
– The job analyst writes five to ten important
task statements for each job under study.
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FIGURE
4.2
A Sample Page from the PAQ
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Approaches to Job Analysis (cont’d)
• Task Inventory Analysis
– Is an organization-specific analysis developed by
identifying—with the help of employees and
managers—a list of tasks and their descriptions
that are components of different jobs.
• Competency-Based Analysis
– Involves constant development of job profiles of
current worker tasks, duties, and responsibilities
that are “key” competencies for use in creating
job descriptions, setting recruitment
requirements, and in performance evaluation.
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Key Elements of a Job Description
• Job Title

Indicates job duties and organizational level
• Job Identification

Distinguishes job from all other jobs
• Essential Functions (Job Duties)

Indicate responsibilities entailed and results
to be accomplished
• Job Specifications

Skills required to perform the job and physical
demands of the job
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Job Descriptions
• Job Title
– Provides status to the employee.
– Indicates what the duties of the job entails.
– Indicates the relative level occupied by its
holder in the organizational hierarchy.
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Job Descriptions (cont’d)
• Job Identification Section
–
–
–
–
–
–
Departmental location of the job
Person to whom the jobholder reports
Date the job description was last revised
Payroll or code number
Number of employees performing the job
Number of employees in the department where
the job is located
– O*NET code number.
– “Statement of the Job”
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Job Descriptions (cont’d)
• Job Duties, or Essential Functions, Section
– Statements of job duties that:
• Are arranged in order of importance that indicate the
weight, or value, of each duty; weight of a duty is
gauged by the percentage of time devoted to it.
• Stress the responsibilities that duties entail and the
results to be accomplished.
• Indicate the tools and equipment used by the employee
in performing the job.
• Should comply with law by listing only the essential
functions of the job to be performed.
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Job Descriptions (cont’d)
• Job Specifications Section
– Personal qualifications an individual must
possess in order to perform the duties and
responsibilities
• The skills required to perform the job:
– Education or experience, specialized training, personal
traits or abilities, interpersonal skills or specific behavioral
attributes, and manual dexterities.
• The physical demands of the job:
– Walking, standing, reaching, lifting, talking, and the
condition and hazards of the physical work environment
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Highlights in HRM
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Problems with Job Descriptions
1. If they are poorly written, using vague rather
than specific terms, they provide little guidance
to the jobholder.
2. They are sometimes not updated as job duties
or specifications change.
3. They may violate the law by containing
specifications not related to job success.
4. They can limit the scope of activities of the
jobholder, reducing an organization’s flexibility.
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Writing Clear and Specific Job
Descriptions
• Create statements that:
– Are terse, direct, and simply worded; eliminate
unnecessary words or phrases.
– Describe duties with a present-tense verb, the
implied subject being the employee performing
the job.
– Use “occasionally” to describe duties performed
once in a while and “may” for duties performed
only by some workers on the job.
– State the specific performance requirements of a
job based on valid job-related criteria.
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36
Job Design
• Industrial Engineering

A field of study concerned with analyzing work
methods and establishing time standards
• Job Design

An outgrowth of job analysis that improves jobs
through technological and human considerations in
order to enhance organization efficiency and
employee job satisfaction
• Ergonomics

The process of studying and designing equipment
and systems that are easy and efficient for people to
use and that ensure their physical well-being.
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Job Design
• Job Enrichment (Herzberg)


Enhancing a job by adding more meaningful tasks and
duties (vertical expansion) to make the work more
rewarding or satisfying.
Providing opportunities for achievement, recognition,
growth, responsibility, and performance.
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Basis of Job Design
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Job Enrichment Factors
• Increasing the level of difficulty and
responsibility of the job
• Allowing employees to retain more authority
and control over work outcomes
• Providing unit or individual job performance
reports directly to employees
• Adding new tasks to the job that require
training and growth
• Assigning individuals specific tasks, enabling
them to use their particular competencies or
skills
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36
Job Characteristics
• Job Characteristics Model
(Hackman and Oldham)
– Job design theory that purports that three
psychological states (experiencing
meaningfulness of the work performed,
responsibility for work outcomes, and
knowledge of the results of the work
performed) of a jobholder result in improved
work performance, internal motivation, and
lower absenteeism and turnover.
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36
Job Characteristics Model: Designing Jobs to
Motivate Employees
Job Characteristics

Skill variety

Task identity

Task significance

Autonomy

Feedback
Psychological States
 Meaningfulness of
the work performed

Responsibility for
work outcomes

Knowledge of the
results of the work
performed.
Job Outcomes
 Improved work
performance

Increased Internal
motivation

Lower
absenteeism and
turnover
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Job Characteristics (cont’d)
1. Skill variety: The degree to which a job entails a variety of different
activities, which demand the use of a number of different skills and talents
by the jobholder
2. Task identity: The degree to which the job requires completion of a whole
and identifiable piece of work, that is, doing a job from beginning to end with
a visible outcome
3. Task significance: The degree to which the job has a substantial impact on
the lives or work of other people, whether in the immediate organization or
in the external environment
4. Autonomy: The degree to which the job provides substantial freedom,
independence, and discretion to the individual in scheduling the work and in
determining the procedures to be used in carrying it out
5. Feedback: The degree to which carrying out the work activities required by
the job results in the individual being given direct and clear information
about the effectiveness of his or her performance
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36
Employee Empowerment
• Employee Empowerment
– Granting employees power to initiate change,
thereby encouraging them to take charge of what
they do
– Organizational conditions favoring empowerment:
• Participation and autonomy
• Innovation and acceptance
of risk-taking
• Access to information
• Accountability for results
• Cultural openness to change
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36
Enlargement, Rotation, & Enrichment
• Job enlargement

The process of adding a greater variety of tasks
to a job.
• Job rotation

a process whereby employees rotate in and out
of different jobs.
• Job enrichment

Enhancing a job by adding more meaningful
tasks and duties to make the work more
rewarding or satisfying
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36
Empowerment, Crafting, & Engagement
• Employee Empowerment

Granting employees power to initiate change, thereby
encouraging them to take charge of what they do
• Job Crafting

A naturally occurring phenomenon whereby
employees mold their tasks to fit their individual
strengths, passions, and motives better
• Employee Engagement

A situation in which workers are enthusiastic and
immersed in their work to the degree that it improves
the performance of their companies
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36
Designing Work for Group/Team Contributions
• Employee Involvement Groups (EIs)

Groups of employees who meet to resolve problems
or offer suggestions for organizational improvement

Also known as quality circles (QCs)

Success with EIs requires:
–
–
–
–
Comprehensive training for group members
Recognition of the group’s contributions
Continuing input and encouragement by management
Use of a participative/democratic leadership style
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The Dynamics of Employee Involvement Groups
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4–39
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Synergistic Team Characteristics
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Forms of Employee Teams
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Characteristics of Successful Teams
• A commitment to shared goals and objectives
• Motivated and energetic team members
• Open and honest communication
• Shared leadership
• Clear role assignments
• A climate of cooperation, collaboration, trust,
and accountability
• The recognition of conflict and its positive
resolution
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Benefits of Employee Teams
• Increased integration of individual skills
• Better performance (quality and quantity)
solutions to unique and complex problems
• Reduced delivery time
• Reduced turnover and absenteeism
• Accomplishments among team members
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Flexible Work Schedules
• Flextime

Working hours that permit employees the option of choosing
daily starting and quitting times, provided that they work a set
number of hours per day or week.
• Compressed Workweek

Shortening the number of days in the workweek by
lengthening the number of hours worked per day.
• Job Sharing

The arrangement whereby two part-time employees perform a
job that otherwise would be held by one full-time employee.
• Telecommuting

The use of personal computers, networks, and other
communications technology such as fax machines to do work
in the home that is traditionally done in the workplace.
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