The Practice and Legacy of Colonialism
There is a general consensus among African historians that colonialism is morally
wrong. It is not difficult to understand this conclusion! Colonialism, after all, is a
political system in which an external nation takes complete control of a territory in
another area of the world. Moreover, the colonized people do not invite the colonial
power, nor do they have any say in how they are governed. Colonialism is by
definition and practice un-democratic.
In spite of the universal recognition that colonialism is morally reprehensible, there
are differing opinions on the social, economic, and political consequences of
colonialism. Since colonialism was practiced differently throughout Africa, the
consequences of colonial rule will differ from colony to colony. In this article, we will
look briefly at some of the general outcomes of colonialism in Africa.
Political Practice and Legacy
There were four different forms of colonial rule practiced in Africa: Company,
Direct, Indirect, and Settler. The practice of governing was somewhat different
depending on the form of colonialism. In spite of these differences, all colonial
governments shared certain attributes.
1. Colonial political systems were un-democratic.
No matter what form colonial rule took, all colonial systems were un-democratic.
Colonial governments did not allow popular participation. Decisions and policies
were made with little or no input from the African peoples. Even in the case where
decisions or policies may have benefited some people, they were still un-democratic
since there were no mechanisms for the people to officially express their opinions.
2. Law and Order ("Peace") was a primary objective of colonial governments.
Colonial rule was most often imposed without consent from the African people.
Understandably, people were not happy with being governed without any
representation, and colonial governments faced the potential of civil disobedience
or outright resistance to their rule. Consequently, the maintenance of "peace" and
law and order was a top priority of colonial governments. As a result, in most
African colonies, more money was spent on developing and maintaining a police
force and an army then was spent on education, housing, and health-care
combined.
3. Colonial governments lacked capacity.
Most colonial governments were not rich. The European colonial powers were not
willing to fund the governing of their colonies in Africa fully. Each colony was
responsible for raising most of the revenue (money) needed to fund the operations
of colonial rule. No matter how rich in resources a colony was, the government
lacked the income and revenue necessary to develop a government system able to
go beyond maintaining law and order. This meant that colonial governments were
not able to provide basic infrastructure, such as roads and communication
networks, nor were they able to provide basic social services such as education,
health care, and housing.
4. Colonial governments practiced "divide and rule." Given the lack of capacity and
the strong emphasis on law and order, all forms of colonial rule engaged in
"divide and rule," by implementing policies that intentionally weakened indigenous
power networks and institutions. Many post-colonial ethnic conflicts in various
parts of Africa have their roots in colonial policy of separating language, religious,
and ethnic groups, and how these policies often created or exacerbated group
differences.
Economic Practice and Legacy
Just as there were a variety of types of colonial rule, there were also different types
of colonial economies in Africa. However in spite of differences, there were some
similarities between all types of colonial economic practice.
1. Emphasis on exploitation of raw materials for export. Colonial regimes
concentrated on finding and exploiting the most profitable natural resources in each
colony. In mineral-rich colonies, the emphasis was placed on mining. In other
territories, the colonial power identified agricultural products suitable for export to
Europe. In either case, the emphasis was on developing the resources for export,
not for local use or consumption. Profits from the export of mineral and agricultural
goods were also sent to Europe. Profits that could have been used to promote social
and economic development in the colonies were not available. The small taxes
levied on exports went to support colonial rule.
2. High demand for labor.
Mining of minerals and the production of crops for export necessitated a ready
supply of inexpensive labor. Consequently, colonial governments exerted
considerable effort "recruiting" labor for these endeavors. At times colonial
governments resorted to policies of forced labor in order to provide adequate labor
for mines and plantations. At other times, their tactics were not as harsh, but in
almost all situations, Africans labored in poor working conditions, for long hours,
with inadequate pay. To improve the pay and working conditions of the labors
would have lessened profits. The demand for labor also resulted in large-scale
movements of people from areas that were not involved in colonial production to
areas, including new urban areas, where colonial production occurred.
Social Practice and Legacy
In most African colonies, given the lack of revenue, very little was done officially to
promote social change or social development. However, the colonial experience had
a dramatic impact on African societies. Once again, it is important to remember
that the colonial impact on Africa was not uniform across the continent. However,
some social consequences were experienced in most African colonies.
1. Movement of People.
Colonial economic and political practices resulted in the massive movements of
people in most African colonies. In some locales, migrations were primarily from
one rural area to another. In other places, the migration was from rural areas to
urban areas. In either case, these movements resulted in dislocation of peoples
that impacted society and culture. Social and cultural beliefs and practices were
challenged by these migrations. Long-held practices had to be adapted (and at
times were completed abandoned) to fit the new circumstances. In U.S. history,
rural to urban migration in the early 20th century had a similar impact on American
society and culture.
2. Dislocation of Families.
Families were often split up by migration. For example, men recruited to work in
mines and on plantations often had to leave their families behind. As a result,
women and adolescents were forced to take on new roles and to cope in absence of
their husbands and fathers. Even when families remained unaffected by migration,
they underwent considerable stress and change as the result of the colonial
experience. Prior to colonialism, the extended family structure was the norm in
most African societies. But by the end of colonial era, the nuclear family was
becoming the norm in many African countries.
3. Urbanization.
A number of pre-colonial African societies had towns and small cities. However even
in these societies, most people were engaged in agriculture in rural villages or
homesteads. During colonialism, urbanization occurred fairly rapidly in many
African colonies. Urban living resulted in changes in economic activities and
occupation, and in changes in the way people lived. These changes often challenged
existing values, beliefs, and social practices.
4. Religious changes.
There was a significant change in religious belief and practice as a result of
colonialism. At the beginning of the colonial era, less than five per cent of the
people in Africa identified themselves as Christian. Today, nearly fifty per cent of
the people in Africa identify themselves as Christians. Colonial rule provided an
environment in which Christianity, in many forms, spread in many parts of Africa.
While Islam was widespread in Africa prior to the coming of colonialism, it also
benefited from colonialism. British and French colonial officials actively discouraged
Christian mission work in Moslem areas. Peace and order established by colonial
rule provided an environment in which Islam could consolidate its hold in certain
African colonies.
However, in spite of these significant changes, many Africans continued to hold to
and practice traditional religions.
5. Education.
Throughout human history, all societies have practiced a form of "public" education.
Education is the method by which families and societies transfer beliefs, values, and
skills between generations. Throughout human history, education has mainly been
informal. That is, values and knowledge were learned in informal settings in the
home, church, and through work and play. It is has only been in the past 200 years
that public education has become more formalized, taking place in schools with an
added emphasis on literacy and numeracy-reading, writing, and mathematics.
Koranic Schools were widespread in the Islamic areas of Africa prior to the
coming of colonial rule. Koranic schools focused on learning to read the Koran, the
holy book of Islam. The Koran was written in Arabic. Consequently, students
learned to read Arabic, and not their local language, at the Koranic schools.
However, schools that emphasized literacy and numeracy in African languages were
not common. Proponents of colonialism claimed that it was necessary to enlighten
and civilize African peoples and societies. Given this concern, you would think that
colonial governments would have made a major effort to introduce schools
throughout Africa. The truth is that most colonial governments did little to support
schools. Most formal schooling African colonies was a result of the work of
missionaries.
Missionaries felt that education and schools were essential to their mission. Their
primary concern was the conversion of people to Christianity. Missionaries believed
that the ability of African peoples to read the Bible in their own language was
important to the conversion process. However, most mission societies were not
wealthy, and they could not support the number of schools that they really wanted.
Consequently, with limited government support, most African children did not go to
school during the colonial era. In fact at the end of colonial rule, no colony could
boast that more than half of their children finished elementary school, and far fewer
attended secondary school.
However, in spite of lack of support for public education, schooling had a dramatic
impact on children who were fortunate enough to attend school. Indeed, most of
the leaders of Africa's independence movements (see next section), leaders of postindependent African governments and economies, were products of one of the few
mission or fewer government schools.