Topic 2: Independent Africa
How was independence realised in
Africa in the 1960s and 1980s?
2.2 CONGO AND TANZANIA
Comparative Case Studies as
examples to illustrate the political,
economic, social and cultural
successes and challenges in
independent Africa: 1960-1980s.
(Comparative Essay Question)
Where in the world is Congo and Tanzania?
Where are Congo and Tanzania located in
Africa?
Tanzania
Congo
4
The leadership
Mobutu Sese Seko
Julius Nyerere
Two case studies:
• Congo – focus of
superpower attention
during Cold War
• Tanzania – experiment
in African socialism
2.2 Story of main events and
developments
CONGO / TANZANIA
How did the Cold War affect the
Congo?
1960: Congo became independent
from Belgian rule
• Crisis developed
• This brought Cold War
to Africa
• Congo became a tool of
West during Cold War
The legacy of Belgian rule
Although local chiefs organized
tribal resistance, the FP brutally
crushed these uprisings. Rebellions
often included Congolese fleeing
their villages to hide in the
wilderness, ambushing army units,
and setting fire to rubber vine
forests.[2] In retribution, the FP
burned villages and FP officers sent
their soldiers into the forest to find
and kill hiding rebels. To prove the
success of their patrols, soldiers
were ordered to cut off and bring
back dead victims’ right hands as
proof that they had not wasted their
bullets.[3] If their shots missed
their targets or if they used
cartridges on big game, soldiers
would cut off the hands of the living
and wounded to meet their quotas.
Features of Belgian colonial rule in
Congo:
•
•
•
•
High taxes
Forced labour
Paternalism
Few secondary schools,
no higher education
After WW2, Belgium determined to
maintain colonial rule in Congo:
• Tried to stop spread of
nationalist ideas
• Political parties banned
• No independent African
newspapers allowed
1959: Violent protests in Congo
• Belgium decided to
grant independence
immediately
• Thought it could
maintain control
because of
inexperience of
politicians in Congo
Formation of political parties:
• Many were regionally or
ethnically based
• MNC attempted to get
nation-wide support
• Leader of MNC was
Patrice Lumumba
1960: Elections:
• 120 parties took part
• MNC won most seats
but not outright
majority
Independence and civil war
1960: Lumumba formed coalition
government:
• Prime minister:
Lumumba
- wanted strong central
government
• President: Joseph
Kasavubu
- wanted loose
federation with regional
autonomy
Events after independence:
•
•
•
•
•
•
Mutiny of Congolese army
Attacks on Belgian property
and civilians
Breakaway of Katanga (wealth
from copper;
backed by Belgian mining
interests)
Breakaway of Kasai (backed by
USSR)
Arrival of Belgian troops
- justified as protection for
Belgian nationals
- but seen as attempt to
restore colonial rule; control
copper mines
Lumumba appealed to UN for help to:
• restore order
• reunite country
• ensure withdrawal of
Belgian troops
UN unable to achieve these aims
• unwilling to use force against Katanga (pressure from
USA)
Lumumba appealed to USSR for help
• Arrival of Soviet
technicians, aid
• USA and West became
alarmed
Breakdown of government control:
• Lumumba deposed by
Kasavubu
• Mobuto seized power
- expelled Soviets;
arrested Lumumba
Jan 1961: Murder of Lumumba
• Mobuto, Tshombe, CIA,
Belgian agents all
involved
• UN did nothing to
protect him
• Regarded as martyr by
communists and African
nationalists
Disunity in Congo continued:
• Katanga hired
mercenary army
• UN struggled to restore
unity
• Struggle for political
power continued
Mobuto seizes power:
Nov 1965: Mobuto seized power
(with US support)
• Established one-party
state
• Ruled as dictator
(Mobuto Sese Seko) for
32 years
• Changed name of
Congo to Zaire
• Received substantial US
aid
Reasons for US support:
• Ally against USSR in
Cold War
• Mineral wealth of Zaire
(copper, cobalt,
industrial diamonds)
Zaire under Mobuto:
• 1970s: Economic collapse
(partly caused by fall
in copper prices)
• Autocratic government;
opposition brutally
suppressed
• Corruption; looting of
government funds
• Unconditional support
from West (because of
Cold War) – 1977/1978
attacks by armed rebels
1990: End of Cold War
• USA no longer needed
Mobuto as anti-Soviet
ally withdrew support
• 1997: Mobuto
overthrown in civil war
- went into exile
How was African socialism
applied in Tanzania?
Independence in Tanzania
• 1961: British colony of
Tanganyika became
independent
• 1964: Tanganyika and
Zanzibar united to form
Tanzania
• Leader of Tanzania was
Julius Nyerere
The origins of African socialism in
Tanzania
Policies after independence:
• Expansion of education
• Promotion of
indigenous
entrepreneurship
• Establishment of cooperatives for
marketing crops
• Tanzania depended on
investments from West
But Nyerere concerned about:
• Dependence on foreign
investments; drain of
wealth from Africa
• Policies of Western
countries towards Africa
(e.g. in Rhodesia)
• Situation of poor rural
farmers
• Willingness of civil
servants and politicians to
enrich themselves,
creating class divisions
1967: Nyerere’s Arusha Declaration
called for:
• a self-reliant, prosperous,
classless society
• socialist development
strategies instead of
foreign investment
• self-reliance based on
peasant labour
• economic development
combined with nationbuilding
The nature of African socialism in
Tanzania
Economic policies:
• State control of
production, distribution,
transport
• Banks, insurance
companies, large foreign
companies nationalised
• Small private companies
controlled by state
corporations
‘Leadership Code’: rules for civil
servants and party officials:
• No involvement in
capitalist activities
• Could not use positions to
gain wealth; fringe
benefits cut
• Could not own company
shares or houses for rent
• Could not hold private
directorships
• Could not receive more
than one salary
Less corruption in Tanzania than most
countries in Africa
Rural development:
• Large, collectivised
villages (ujamaa )
replaced scattered
settlements
• Aim: to increase
productivity and
prosperity in rural
areas
Ujamaa villages
• Land communallyowned; resources
shared; leaders
elected
• Government provided
roads, markets,
agricultural services
• Water, health,
education infrastructure
centralised at ujamaa
villages
Successes
• Improved access to
education and
healthcare in rural
areas
Problems and breakdown of African
socialism in 1970s–80s
Resistance to ujamaa villages:
• Peasant farmers reluctant to
leave traditional lands
• Also reluctant to give up
individually owned plots
• Programme of compulsory
‘villagisation’ introduced:
- 11 million people forced
to move to 8 000 new
villages
- Reports of use of force and
harsh methods
- By 1979: 90% of peasants in
ujamaa villages
Problems in agriculture:
• Some villages overcrowded
and badly situated
• Serious drought in early
1970s
• Food shortages and fewer
cash crops for export
• Problems of
mismanagement and
bureaucracy
• Tanzania needed loans and
food aid
- Tanzania dependent on
foreign aid
Problems in urban economy:
• State-owned
corporations not
efficient; overstaffed
• Not run as businesses –
ran at a loss
• Income levels/wages
dropped
Influence of outside forces:
• 1970s oil price rise led
to world economic crisis
• Prices for cash crops on
world markets collapsed
• Tanzania became more
reliant on external aid
In 1980s, Nyerere stated that:
• Tanzania was poorer,
not socialist and not
self-reliant
• But there was no
wealthy elite; and
• Improvements in
literacy rates and
primary schooling
• 1986 IMF structural
adjustment
Ideas that influenced the independent states
• African Socialism: Nyerere argued that there were no class
structures in traditional African society. African socialism
emphasised community and communal development rather
than the European idea of a working class revolution.
• Capitalism: It is an economic system that is based on private
ownership of the means of production and the use of labour
and resources to make a profit.
• Democracy: A system of government by the whole population
or all the eligible members of a state, typically through
elected representatives.
• One-Party State: A political system where in only one party is
allowed in a country. No opposition is allowed and all
opposition parties are banned
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What aspects of a country should be
compared in a comparative study?
• Political: relating to the government or the public
affairs of a country
• Economic: the choices made about who can create,
benefit from, have access to a country’s resources
and wealth
• Social: is the different ways that people organise
themselves and live together in groups and the
relationships which emerge (e.g. a class system)
• Cultural: is the characteristics of a particular group
of people, defined by everything from language,
religion, food, to social habits, clothes or music
POLITICAL: What kind of States emerged?
Congo: supported by USA
Tanzania: non-aligned
• 1960:
• 1961:
• 5days after independence
• 1962:
• 1961 and 1965: military Coup
(supported by USA / CIA)
Mobutu established
• 1963:
• 1964:
•
1967:
• Authenticité or Zairisation
• Mobutu’s Zaire characterised
by corruption, kleptocracy,
elitism.
• 1967:
• Attempted to remain nonaligned politically and avoid
economic neo-colonialism.
52
POLITICAL: What kind of States emerged?
Congo: supported by USA (DISUNITY)
Tanzania: non-aligned (UNITY)
• 1960: Gained independence
from Belgium (Kasavubu President, Lumumba - Prime
Minister) – multi-party
democracy.
• Mineral rich region, Katanga,
seceded (Moise Tshombe)
• 1961 and 1965: military Coup
(supported by USA / CIA)
Mobutu established a military
dictatorship.
• 1967: Abolished opposition
parties.
• Authenticité or Zairianisation
• Mobutu’s Zaire characterised by
autocracy, corruption,
kleptocracy, elitism.
• 1961: Gained independence from
Britain – multi-party democracy
• 1962 – Nyerere became President
• 1963: Nyerere abolished all other
political parties. TANU became the
only legal party.
• 1964: Tanzania and Zanzibar
merged to form the United
Republic of Tanzania
• 1967: Arusha Declaration - stated
commitment to African Socialism
– introduced ‘Leadership Code’
and Ujaama.
• Attempted to remain non-aligned
politically and avoid economic
neo-colonialism.
53
POLITICAL: What types of leaders emerged?
Congo / Zaire
Tanzania
• Patrice Lumumba – 1960: 1st
Prime Minister of independent
(DRC). Leader of the Mouvement
National Congolais (MNC) – A
pan/multi-ethnic political party
to unify all Congolese into a
single nation
• Believed in ‘positive neutralism’
wanted DRC free from foreign
interference, initially non-aligned
but turned to USSR for support
when Katanga seceded.
• Arrested and executed with USA
/ Belgium support in 1961
• Joseph Mobutu – 1961 and
1965: seized power by military
coup (supported by the west)
• Ruled as a ruthless dictator until
his death in 1997.
• Julius Nyerere – 1961: 1st Prime
Minister of independenet
Tanganyika; President in 1962.
• Leader of Tanganyikan African
National Union (TANU).
• Called ‘Mwalimu’ (teacher) –
Remembered for his personal
integrity.
• Believed in pan-Africanism and
equity. He rejected tribalism and
opposed neo-colonialism.
• He attempted to keep Tanzania
non-aligned during Cold War.
• Voluntarily retired in 1985
POLITICAL: COLONIAL LEGACIES
Congo
Tanzania
Political system under Belgium
• Early political system:
Political system under Britain
• 1920s
• 1950s :
• 1945:
•
• 1950s:
1959:
• 1960: MNC won most support in
election, but no outright
majority
• Effect on one party state:
instability (reasons)–
o S
o L
o A
o O
• Stability restored under
Mobutu’s dictatorship
• 1960: TANU win elections with
support of large majority
• 1967: Tanzania becomes a one
party state
• Effects of one party state:
o S
o No separatist regional movement
o No challenge of leadership
o Elections ensured accountability
55
POLITICAL: COLONIAL LEGACIES
Congo
Tanzania
Political system under Belgium
• Early political system:
Paternalistic, no pol. opportunities
• 1950s :
Native councils – limited role in
local affairs
• 1959:
Speedy withdrawal
• 1960: MNC won most support in
election, but no outright majority
• Effect on one party state: instability
(reasons)–
o Separatist movements (Katanga,
kasai)
o Leaders in disunity
o Army mutinied (no control over
law and order)
o Outside interference
• Stability restored under Mobutu’s
dictatorship
Political system under Britain
• 1920s
Native authorities – chiefs had
administrative power (taxes, law and
order)
• 1945:
African reps in Legislative Council
• 1950s:
Native authorities replaced by local
administration (educated Africans)
• 1960: TANU win elections with
support of large majority
• 1967: Tanzania becomes a one party
state
• Effects of one party state:
o Stability
o No separatist regional movement
o No challenge of leadership
o Elections ensured accountability
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Economic Legacy of Colonialism
• Both countries were colonised by European
powers, Congo by Belgium and Tanzania by
Germany and then Britain, who exploited their
natural resources.
• At independence both countries had
underdeveloped economies - their wealth came
from agriculture and the sale of unprocessed
minerals. Neither country had industrialised or
had developed a manufacturing industry.
• The colonial powers only built infrastructure to
service the export of raw materials not to
promote internal trade.
Similarities between the economies
of Congo and Tanzania
• In both countries the majority of people were peasants (small scale farmers)
• Both countries struggled to develop a manufacturing industry after independence
• In both countries land and industry were nationalised. Mobutu nationalised most
mines (‘Zairisation’ proved to be a total failure and he had to re-privatise most
mines); Tanzania also nationalised its industry and land but was forced to privatise
these in return for debt relief from the World Bank and IMF in the 1980s
• In both countries during the period 1960-1980s the majority of the people lived in
poverty and the countries faced economic crisis
• Both countries relied on the export of primary products. Congo is very rich in
valuable minerals: copper, industrial diamonds, cobalt, gold and zinc; Tanzania’s
economy is based on the production of cash crops such as coffee and tea. It also
mines a rare gemstone called tanzanite
• Both countries were badly affected by the drop in price for raw materials in 1970s
• Neither country had oil reserves so were negatively impacted by steep increases in
cost of oil (necessary for industrialisation and transport) in 1970s
• Both countries experienced extreme economic problems in the years after
independence and by the 1980s relied from loans from foreign countries (Congo –
USA) and institutions (Tanzania - IMF and World Bank) to avoid bankruptcy
Differences between the economies
of Congo and Tanzania
CONGO/ ZAIRE
TANZANIA
• Adopted a capitalist economic
model (after initial attempts at
nationalisation/ ‘Zairisation’)
• Relied heavily of foreign
investment and received
support from USA and West.
• Mobutu aimed to industrialise,
process its own raw materials
and develop an industrial
base.
• Under Mobutu a very wealthy
elite emerged. Corruption and
cronyism led to greater class
difference.
• Adopted a socialist economic
model (although Nyerere had
to abandon this in the 1980s)
• Attempted to remain
economically independent and
avoid neo-colonialism
• Nyerere believed that
attempting to industrialse was
a mistake. He introduced
Ujaama, a villagisation policy
aimed to make the country
self-sufficient in terms of food
• Nyerere attempted to prevent
a new elite emerging with his
‘Leadership Code’
Social & cultural successes and challenges
Congo
Tanzania
• Clothing: inspired by ‘Maoist’
dress
• Imposed ‘Abacos’ from (‘A
bas le costumes’ – that
literally meant ‘down with
the suit!’)
• All Africans encouraged to
discard their ‘European’
names.
• State run schools were
established after
independence but Mobutu
did not divert sufficient
money to education and
Congo lacked qualified
teachers.
• Clothing: inspired by ‘Maoist’
dress
• Language: African-language
departments and research
centers were created in newly
founded universities
• Promotion of Kiswahili as a
unifying language
• ‘Villagisation’: collective
villages (managed by locals inexperienced)
• Used education to promote a
national ethos, ideology and
philosophy, and principles of a
new society embracing a
concept of social justice;