Chapter 11:
Occupational Health
PSYC 352
October 21
Occupational Health
Occupational health: Broad-based
concept that refers to the mental,
emotional, and physical wellbeing of
employee in relation to the conduct of their
work.
 Work plays a critical role in one’s identity,
self-esteem, and psychological wellbeing.

Positive Psychology

Positive psychology: The study of the
factors and conditions in life that lead to
pleasurable and satisfying outcomes for
individuals.
Environmental Influences on
Mental Health (1 of 3; Warr, 1987)
There are 9 determinants of psychological
wellbeing:
1.Opportunity for control
Opportunity to decide and act in one’s
chosen way
 Potential to predict the consequences of
action

Environmental Influences on
Mental Health (2 of 3; Warr, 1987)
2.
Opportunity for skill use

Those that prevent people from using skills
they already possess
 Restrictions on the acquisition of new skills
3.
4.
Externally generated goals or challenges
Environmental variety
Environmental Influences on
Mental Health (3 of 3; Warr, 1987)
5.
Environmental clarity

Feedback about actions
 Clarity of role requirement
6.
7.
8.
9.
Availability of money
Physical security
Opportunity for interpersonal contact
Valued social position

Esteem
 Role membership
The Components of Mental Health
(1 of 4;Warr, 1987)
There are 5 major components of mental
health:
1. Affective wellbeing

Pleasure
 Arousal
2.
Competence

A competent person has adequate
psychological resources to deal with life’s
pressures
The Components of Mental Health
(2 of 4;Warr, 1987)
3.
Autonomy

The ability to resist environmental influences
and determine one’s own opinions/actions
 “Employee’s control of the timing and
method of her/his work tasks” (Turnbull,
1988)
Autonomy appears to be more important in predicting
wellbeing in Western cultures than Eastern cultures.
The Components of Mental Health
(3 of 4;Warr, 1987)
4.
Aspiration

Someone with high aspiration engages with
the environment, establishes goals, and
makes efforts to attain them.
High motivation
Aspiration
Alertness to new
opportunities
Commitment to meet
personal challenges
The Components of Mental Health
(4 of 4;Warr, 1987)
5.
Integrated functioning

People who are integrated exhibit balance,
harmony, and inner relatedness
5 components work together to make up wellbeing:
1. Affective well-being
2. Competence
3. Autonomy
4. Aspiration
5. Integrated Functioning
Work Stress (1 of 2)

Work stress: The response to stimuli that
are present on the job that lead to the
negative consequences, physical or
psychological, to the people who are
exposed to them.
 Stress
symptoms can cause individuals
suffering, significantly affect absenteeism and
productivity levels within organizations.
 Outcomes include lower levels of self-esteem,
job satisfaction, and motivation as well as
higher blood and cholesterol levels,
depression, ulcers, and heart disease.
Work Stress (2 of 2)
46% of American workers felt that their
jobs were very or somewhat stressful.
 27% state that jobs were the single
greatest source of stress in their lives.
 In a survey of American managers, 88%
reported elevated levels of stress.
 Stress affects almost 1/3 of the European
working population.

A Model of Stress (1 of 7; Kahn &
Byosiere, 1992)
Kahn and Byosiere’s (1992) model of stress
conceptualizes stress in organizations in
terms of 7 major categories.
1. Organizational antecedents to stress

Stress markers
 Organizational characteristics


Size
Work schedule
A Model of Stress (2 of 7; Kahn &
Byosiere, 1992)
2.
Stressors in organizational life

There are 2 major types of stressors:
Task content
Role Properties
Ill health is related to
monotonous work and
sustained vigilance
Psychological
- Role ambiguity
- Role conflict
- Role overload
Strain
A Model of Stress (3 of 7; Kahn &
Byosiere, 1992)
3.
Perception and cognition

Helps explain why people react differently to
stressors that are objectively the same.


Primary appraisal: Initial determination that a
stimulus is positive, negative, or neither in its
implications for wellbeing.
Secondary appraisal: Judgment about what
can be done to minimize damage or
maximize gain.
A Model of Stress (4 of 7; Kahn &
Byosiere, 1992)
4.
Response to stress


Physiological: e.g.,
cardiovascular
symptoms (blood
pressure, cholesterol
level)
Psychological: e.g.,
job dissatisfaction

Behavioral:
 Work role
 Antisocial behavior
at work
 Flight from the job
 Degradation of
other roles
 Self-damaging
behavior
A Model of Stress (5 of 7; Kahn &
Byosiere, 1992)
5.
Consequences of stress

The consequences of stress typically affect
the performance of the individual on the job
and in other life roles.



Health and illness
Organizational effectiveness
Performance in other life roles
A Model of Stress (6 of 7; Kahn &
Byosiere, 1992)
6.
Properties of people as stress mediators

2 personality characteristics mediate effects of
stress {stressor individual difference strain}

Personality type:



Type A: Personality construct that describes individuals who
tend to be aggressive and competitive and feel under chronic
time pressures.
Type B: Personality construct that describes individuals who
tend not to be competitive, intense, or feel under chronic time
pressures.
Locus of control: Personality construct relating to the
perceived cause or locus of control for events in one’s
life being either internal or external.
A Model of Stress (7 of 7; Kahn &
Byosiere, 1992)
7.
Properties of situation as stress mediators

Situations buffer stress.
Situations
Stressor


Strain
The primary situation factor is social support
Other situations can buffer against stress:

Predictability, understandability, controllability
Prevention and Intervention

Organizational Level
 Selection and placement
 Training and education programs
 Physical and environmental characteristics
 Communication
 Job redesign/restructuring

Individual/Organizational Level
 Coworker support groups
 Role issues
 Participation and autonomy
Prevention and Intervention

Individual Level
 Relaxation
 Meditation
 Biofeedback
 Cognitive-behavioral
therapy
 Exercise
 Time
management
 Employee assistance programs
Is Stress Always Bad (1 of 2)?




Certain job demands that, although pressure-laden and
stressful, are viewed as rewarding work experiences.
McCauley and colleagues labeled these job demands
challenges (e.g., job overload, time pressures, and high
levels of responsibility)
Managers' reports that challenging job demands or work
circumstances produce positive feelings, even though
they may be stressful.
This is consistent with the theoretical distinction that has
been made in the general stress literature between
eustress and distress.
Source: Cavanaugh, M. A., Boswell, W. R., Roehling, M. V., & Boudreau, J. W. (2000). An empirical
examination of self-reported work stress among US managers. Journal of Applied Psychology, 85, 65-74.
Is Stress Always Bad (2 of 2)?

Challenge Stressors







The number of projects and or assignments I have.
The amount of time I spend at work.
The volume of work that must be accomplished in the allotted
time.
Time pressures I experience.
The amount of responsibility I have.
The scope of responsibility my position entails.
Hindrance Stressors





The degree to which politics rather than performance affects
organizational decisions.
The inability to clearly understand what is expected of me on the
job.
The amount of red tape I need to go through to get my job done.
The lack of job security I have.
The degree to which my career seems “stalled.”
Source: Cavanaugh, M. A., Boswell, W. R., Roehling, M. V., & Boudreau, J. W. (2000). An empirical examination of
self-reported work stress among US managers. Journal of Applied Psychology, 85, 65-74.
Work-Family Conflict (1 of 6)

Changes in the workforce and in the family
domain have renewed interest in the study
of work-family conflict.
Macro level changes:
Methods of production
Increased technological
sophistication
Widespread downsizing
Family-related changes:
Increased role for fathers
Widespread maternal
employment
Greater life expectancy
Changes in the psychological experience of work:
Role overload
Contingent work
Job Insecurity
Self-employment, working from home
Skills
Financial strain
Work-Family Conflict (2 of 6)

3 Targets of Research in WFC (Zedeck, 1992):
 Effects
of work on family
 Effects of family on work
 Family-work interaction
Work-Family Conflict (3 of 6)

3 Models of WFC:
 Spillover
Model: similarity between what
occurs in the work and family environments

Spillover between work and family can be negative
or positive (Zedeck & Mosier, 1990)
 Compensation
Model: inverse relationship
between work and family
 Segmentation Model: work and nonwork
spheres are distinct
Work-Family Conflict (4 of 6)

Gender Differences in WFC (Kossek & Ozeki, 1998):
 Correlation
between WFC and job satisfaction
= -.35 for women, -.29 for men
 Correlation between WFC and life satisfaction
= -.42 for women, -.32 for men

Mental Health and WFC (Frone, 2000):
 EEs
who experience WFC were 30 times
more likely to experience mental health
problems.
Work-Family Conflict (5 of 6)
Why Study WFC?
In a meta-analysis on the consequences of WF conflict, Allen,
Herst, Bruck, and Sutton (2000) reported that WF conflict was
related to:
Life satisfaction (-.28)
Marital satisfaction (-.23)
Family satisfaction (-.17)
General psychological health (.29)
Physical symptoms (.29)
Depression (.32)
Job burnout (.42)
Alcohol use (.17)
Distress (.41)
Family distress (.31)
Job sat (.-24)
Career satisfaction (-.04)
Org commitment (-.23)
Turnover intentions (.29)
Absenteeism (-.02)
Job performance (-.12)
Work-Family Conflict (6 of 6)

Family-Friendly Policies:
 On-site
child care centers
 Family and Medical Leave Act (1993):
Employees can withdraw from the workforce to
attend to family needs without risking the loss of
their jobs
 Workers get up to 12 weeks unpaid leave each
year for the birth, adoption, or foster care of a
child; care for a spouse, parent or child with health
condition; or employee’s own health condition.
 The FMLA covers private employers with 50 or
more employees.

Dual-Career Families (1 of 2)

Rapoport and Rapoport (1969) first proposed the term
“dual-career family” in the late 1960s, when more and
more women were entering the workplace. They
originally described a dual-career family as “both
husband and wife pursue careers … and at the same
time establish a family life with at least one child” (p. 1).
Dual-Career Marriage
Married couple in which both
spouses are employed but the
main purpose of one or both
of the jobs is to establish and
maintain a career.
Dual-Earner Marriage
Married couple in which both
spouses are employed but the
main purpose of one or both
of the jobs is to produce
income.
Dual-Career Families (2 of 2)




Approximately 60% married couples are dualearners
Only 17% of families conform to the 50s model
of the working dad and stay-at-home mom
More women adjust careers for families
 Mothers with young children work 77
hours/weed in the home, on average
There is a differential in division of labor
between spouses
Work Schedules: Shift Work
Shift work: the period of time a person
must perform her/his hob; usually an 8hour period.
 Set vs. rotating shifts
 Problems associated with shift work:

 Physiological
 Social

Shift workers are more likely to quit
Work Schedules: Flextime
Flextime: a schedule of work hours that
permits employees flexibility in when they
arrive at and leave work.
 73% of US employers offer flextime
 Lateness is virtually eliminated
 Findings are positive

Work Schedules:
Compressed Workweek

Compressed work week: a schedule of
work hours that typically involves more
hours per day and fewer days per week.
Advantages
More time for
recreation
Chance to work 2nd job
More time with family
Less company
overhead
Disadvantages
Worker fatigue
Fewer productive
hours
More accidents
Substance Abuse and Work
(1 of 4)






Substance Abuse: the ingestion of a broad array
of substances (such as alcohol, tobacco, or
drugs) that are deemed to have a harmful effect
on the individual.
Statistics
ADA considers former drug use a disability
Performance impairment
Economic issues
Societal costs
Substance Abuse and Work
(2 of 4)

Critics view of drug screening:
 Screening
violates individual’s right to privacy
 Tests are frequently inaccurate


Most support drug testing in jobs where public
safety is crucial (e.g., nuclear power plant
operators)
Postal Services found that 6 months after drug
testing had occurred, workers who had tested
positive prior to employment were absent 41%
more and fired 38% more than those who were
not positive (Wessel, 1989).
Substance Abuse and Work
(3 of 4)
Is drug screening legal?
 In 1989, the Supreme Court upheld the
rulings:

 The
constitutionality of the government
regulations that require railroad crews
involved in accidents to submit to prompt
urinalysis and blood tests.
 Urine tests for US customs service employees
seeking drug-enforcement posts.
Substance Abuse and Work
(4 of 4)

To avoid legal challenges, an employer
should:
 Inform
all employees and job applicants of
drug use policy
 Include drug policy in employment contracts
 Present the program in a medical and safety
context
 If drug screening is used with employees, tell
employees in advance that it will be part of
employment
Unemployment (1 of 3)

Employment has intended and unintended
consequences
 Intended:
Earning a living
 Unintended:
Imposed time structure
 Regular interactions with people
 Linking of goals to purposes
 Status and identity
 Enforcement of activity

Unemployment (2 of 3)
9 environmental
factors needed for
mental health
Opportunity for control
Opportunity for skill use
Externally generated goals or
challenges
Environmental variety
Environmental clarity
Availability of money
Physical security
Opportunity for interpersonal contact
Valued social position
Intended and unintended
consequences of
unemployment
Negative effect on
well-being
Unemployment (3 of 3)

Relationship between unemployment and
mental well-being:
Gaining
employment
Losing
employment
r = .54
Improved
well-being
r = .36
Decreased
well-being
Child Labor and Exploitation

Child Labor: economic activities carried
out by a person less than 15 years of age.
 Not
common in US
 Not rare in other countries (250 million
children worldwide)
 Harmful because it interferes with healthy
development (physical and psychological)