Doing Right Things: Ethics and Decision Making in Human Organizations MPA 8002 The Structure and Theory of Human Organization Richard M. Jacobs, OSA, Ph.D. THE CHALLENGE OF ETHICS For generations, managers and leaders have wondered not only about what they might do when confronted by particularly troublesome dilemmas in their organizations. Sensing their responsibility to make things better, these women and men have also struggled to do what they believe and hope is the right thing to do. the concept of ethics... …assumes that there exist norms principles values ...that have, are, and always will provide the foundation for a good life these norms, principles, and values do not come from a religious, moral, political, or social source... …but are the product of rational reflection upon human existence …and exist independent of any religious, moral, political, or social system (i.e., are universally true) these norms, principles, and values are normative for decision making... …while they do not specify what the decision should be …they do provide a principled framework to engage in making good decisions …for which managers and leaders bear responsibility Some basic ethical principles... mutuality generalizability caring respect honesty mutuality: Are all parties operating under the same understanding of the rules of engagement? generalizability: Does a specific action follow a principle of conduct that is applicable to all comparable situations? caring: Does this action evidence authentic concern for the legitimate interests of others? respect: Does this action demonstrate due consideration for the dignity and rights of others? honesty: Is this decision and the process leading to it straight-forward and forthright? Although these basic principles constitute the fundamental elements embedded in an ethical decision... …these principles do not provide a comprehensive ethical framework... …for use when managers and leaders engage in the decision-making process. An executive ethical decision-making process (Barnard, 1968)... 1. Recognize that people come to organizations with personal motives. 2. Direct efforts to induce cooperation towards a common effort. 3. Uphold the organizational purpose. 4. Design impersonal goals that translate the organization’s purpose into meaningful projects. Questions for ethical decision making (Lax & Sebenius, 1986)... Are the rules understood and accepted? …in poker, for example, bluffing is a defined part of the game Is the decision defensible under tough scrutiny in the public forum? …it is highly probable that an important decision will be “spun” in ways that distort what managers and leaders intend Would you want someone to make the very same decision... …if it impacted you? …if it impacted members of your family? Should everybody act this way? …should children be trained to act this way? …should people in organizations behave this way? …should society be organized this way? What are the alternatives? …what are the pro’s and con’s associated with each alternative? …can differences be negotiated so that the decision rests on a firmer ethical ground? Ethics is “inquiry into the right thing” and acting conversant with it... When managers and leaders endeavor to inquire into the right thing... …“we are inquiring not in order to know what virtue is but in order to become good” …neither “to fall under any art or precept… but to consider what is appropriate to the occasion” (Aristotle, Ethics II.2, p. 183) A paradigm for ethical decision making (Aristotle, Ethics III.2-5)... knowledge of the good quantitative and qualitative factual data that describe “what is truly the case” abstract, theoretical concepts identifying “the truly good” For managers and leaders, the primary sources of knowledge are research and experience. techniques that foster the good technical skills repertoires honed through experience For managers and leaders, techniques are learned in formal and informal apprenticeships where reflection on practice facilitates the development of expertise. In light of what the good requires: deliberation concerning the facts and ideas of this case deliberation concerning the techniques that will foster the good practice Aristotle’s ethical decision-making paradigm... knowledge practice techniques ideas concerning what is good, proper, and just a practical judgment about what must be done in this situation, given what theory and best practice suggest discrete skills to achieve what is good, proper, and just For Aristotle, ethical practice is not... dictating to others what the good is and what they ought to do mindlessly enacting routines inculcated in training programs For Aristotle, ethical practice is... being deliberate by integrating a rational principle with a proven technique through discursive thought (ratiocination) responding: to the right person at the right time to the right extent in the right way and, thus... evidencing a virtuous character revealed in practical wisdom when making decisions bearing responsibility for the choices made inculcating virtue throughout the organization as a shared purpose For Aristotle, then, it is not so much what managers or leaders do that is crucial for ethical decision making... ...what is crucial is why managers or leaders do what they do ...and the quality of character revealed in very practical decisions. “…that is not for everyone, nor is it easy; wherefore goodness is both rare and laudable and noble.” Aristotle, Ethics, II.9 Seven ethical virtues... courage anger liberality truth magnificence indignation pride COURAGE …the quality of being fearless or brave when facing and dealing with anything recognized as dangerous, difficult, or painful LIBERALITY …the noble quality whereby one is generous in thought and evidences the absence of prejudice and partiality when considering substantive matters MAGNIFICENCE …the condition or quality of grandeur, splendor, and glory uplifting the human spirit PRIDE …the quality, state, and behavior evidencing an accurate perception of one’s dignity and worth ANGER …the feeling engendered by a real or supposed injury for which one seeks satisfaction TRUTH …the quality or state of sincerity, genuineness, honesty, trustworthiness, and loyalty emerging when one acts in accord with verified experience, facts, or reality INDIGNATION …the contempt, disgust, and abhorrence caused by the disapproval of something mean, disgraceful, or unjust Aristotle’s theory of the “Golden Mean”... A virtue is a mean, delicate to achieve... …found somewhere between an excess (a positive vice) …and a deficiency (a negative vice) …which reflects the true character of the person making the decision Manager/Leader Virtue: fear COURAGE confidence as a vice: a defect as a virtue: a “golden mean” as a vice: an excess Courage, then, is virtuous when it is a practical judgment of the intellect wherein the defect of paralyzing fear and the excess of exuberant confidence are balanced as managers/leaders act rightly. Manager/Leader Virtue: meanness LIBERALITY prodigality as a vice: a defect as a virtue: a “golden mean” as a vice: an excess Liberality, then, is virtuous when it is a practical judgment of the intellect wherein the defect of meanness and the excess of prodigality are balanced as managers/leaders act rightly. Manager/Leader Virtue: niggardliness MAGNIFICENCE vulgarity as a vice: a defect as a virtue: a “golden mean” as a vice: an excess Magnificence, then, is virtuous when it is a practical judgment of the intellect wherein the defect of niggardliness and the excess of vulgarity are balanced as managers/leaders act rightly. Manager/Leader Virtue: humility PRIDE vanity as a vice: a defect as a virtue: a “golden mean” as a vice: an excess Pride, then, is virtuous when it is a practical judgment of the intellect wherein the defect of humility and the excess of vanity are balanced as managers/leaders act rightly. Manager/Leader Virtue: equanimity ANGER irascibility as a vice: a defect as a virtue: a “golden mean” as a vice: an excess Anger, then, is virtuous when it is a practical judgment of the intellect wherein the defect of equanimity and the excess of irascibility are balanced as managers/leaders act rightly. Manager/Leader Virtue: modesty TRUTH boasting as a vice: a defect as a virtue: a “golden mean” as a vice: an excess Truth, then, is virtuous when it is a practical judgment of the intellect wherein the defect of modesty and the excess of envy are balanced as managers/leaders act rightly. Manager/Leader Virtue: spite INDIGNATION envy as a vice: a defect as a virtue: a “golden mean” as a vice: an excess Indignation, then, is virtuous when it is a practical judgment of the intellect wherein the defect of spite and the excess of envy are balanced as managers/leaders act rightly. A virtue-based process of ethical decision making... • Enables managers and leaders... ...to stand for something when people prefer that managers and leaders stand for everything ...to do right things when people prefer that managers and leaders do things right Integrating reflective practice and ethical decision making... Reflective practice and ethical decision making require intellectual exercise and discipline …reflective practice focuses upon practice episodes to ascertain how one’s beliefs and assumptions as well as one’s background and experiences impact organizational functioning ...ethical decision making endeavors to promote the good amidst conflicting and contradictory choices The concept... reflective practice …the intellectual exercise through which managers and leaders focus upon events in order to ascertain how one’s beliefs and assumptions as well as one’s background and experiences impact organizational functioning Reflective practice inculcates the intellectual discipline needed to discern “what is” in practice episodes as well as to engage in the self-growth necessary if one is to manage and lead others. Reflective practice... is constructed on the reality that professional knowledge is different from scientific knowledge accounts for the fact that there are no infallibly efficacious theories or skills to manage and lead human organizations Reflective practice requires managers and leaders to confront ill-defined, unique, and changing problems as managers and leaders decide on courses of action. The reflective practice model... antecedents cultural milieu theoretical knowledge craft knowledge self knowledge critical knowledge theories of practice practice episodes mindscapes intentions action platforms actions realities ethical decision making …the intellectual exercise through which managers and leaders render practical judgments of the intellect about what ought to be the case, given what is, so as to promote the good Ethical decision making inculcates the virtues needed for managers and leaders to engage others in a collaborative toward attaining what ought to be the case. Aristotle’s ethical decision-making paradigm... knowledge practice techniques ideas concerning what is good, proper, and just a practical judgment about what must be done in this situation, given what theory and best practice suggest discrete skills to achieve what is good, proper, and just Reframing ethical decision making... Reframing ethical decision making requires intellectual exercise and discipline Reframing uses metaphors to focus upon organizations in order to ascertain how various beliefs and assumptions as well as backgrounds and experiences impact organizational functioning Ethical decision making navigates a pathway toward the good amidst the conflicting and contradictory choices available Reframing ethical decision making from a structural point of view... Frame: Metaphor: Structural Factory Guiding Ethic: Management/ Leadership: Excellence Authorship (individualistic) Creativity Commitment Craftsmanship Reframing ethical decision making from a human resources point of view... Frame: Metaphor: Guiding Ethic: Human Resources The extended family Caring (community) Management/ Leadership: Love Cooperation (Barnard) Compliance (Etzioni) Reframing ethical decision making from a political point of view... Frame: Metaphor: Guiding Ethic: Management/ Leadership: Political Jungle Justice (individual and collective) Power Empowerment Reframing ethical decision making from a symbolic/cultural point of view... Frame: Metaphor: Guiding Ethic: Symbolic Cathedral Temple Faith Management/ Leadership: Significance Human possibilities Purpose (Barnard; Vaill) Using ethical decision making... effective managers and leaders are whose primary concerns are …virtuous …reflective …wise …decisive …“what ought to be” given “what is” …doing right things …balancing the common and collective good Abusing ethical decision making... ineffective managers and leaders whose primary concerns are …implement ideas mindlessly …deny responsibility …point the finger of blame at others …doing things right …self-protection …one’s desires and wishes Ethical decision making... …is not a learned behavior or lifestyle worn like a set of clothes, but... a matter of focus: seeking constantly to do what is right and necessary in the system a matter of time: devoting inordinate amounts of time to doing right things a matter of feeling: putting one’s whole psyche, energy, and conviction into it This module has focused on... ethical decision making and how managers and leaders can utilize it in practice episodes... ETHICAL DECISION MAKING “By acting virtuously in our transactions with other human beings we become virtuous or unvirtuous. The states of character arise out of activity. It makes no small difference, then, whether we form habits of one kind or another from our very youth; it makes a great difference, or rather, all the difference.” Aristotle, Ethics, II.1, p. 183 Although existing in a pluralistic and secular world, organizations cannot impose a particular religious, moral, political, or social ethical framework upon employees... …managers and leaders, however, can and should make their purpose clear, hold subordinates accountable, and engage them in dialogue about the ethical choices that arise in practice. The outcome of ethical practice is the gradual transformation of an impersonal workplace into a viable community of people... ...who respect and recognize in one another the virtues that make being human and contributing to a cooperative endeavor meaningful. Work, then, is not simply “a job” but an opportunity to learn about and engage in living a truly good life. The next module will focus on... scenario building for successful organizational change ...and how managers and leaders use frame analysis to forge a pathway that improves organizational functioning. References Aristotle. (1958). The Nicomachean ethics (W. D. Ross, Trans.). In J. D. Kaplan (Ed.), The pocket Aristotle (pp. 158-274). New York: Simon & Schuster. Barnard, C. I. (1938/1968). The functions of the executive. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Bolman, L. G., & Deal, T. E. (1997). Reframing organizations: Artistry, choice and leadership (2nd edition). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Etzioni, A. (1975). A comparative analysis of complex organizations. New York: Free Press. References Lax, D. A., & Sebenius, J. K. (1986). The manager as negotiator. New York: Free Press. Sergiovanni, T. J. (1989). Informing professional practice in educational administration. Journal of Educational Administration, 27(2), p. 186.