The Film Industry
Research
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Lauren Barrett
Production Roles - Director
Explanation
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Ultimately responsible for the creative vision and overall
style of a film.
Director is supported by a number of assistant directors.
They help ensure the Directors’ ambitions are achieved.
Acts as the link between the production, technical and
creative teams.
Translates the script into the physical, visual product.
Main duties include: casting, script editing, shot
composition, shot selection and editing.
Example 1
Steven Spielberg –
Jaws (1975), Close Encounter Of The Third Kind (1977), Raiders of
The Lost Ark (1981), E.T. (1982), Jurassic Park (1993), War Horse
(2011).
Example 2
James Cameron –
The Terminator (1984), Aliens (1986), Titanic (1997), Avatar (2009)
Example 3
James Watkins –
Eden Lake (2008), Woman In Black (2012)
Production Roles - Producer
Explanation
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Has overall control over every aspect of a film’s production.
Accountable for the success of the final film.
Secure the necessary rights, screenwriter and story editing
team, raise the development financing and supervise the
development process.
Select and bring together the key members of the creative
team, including the Director, Cinematographer and
Production Designer.
Example 1
Nina Jacobson –
The Game Plan (2007), Diary of A Wimpy Kid (2010), One Day
(2011),The Hunger Games (2012)
Example 2
Jon Landau–
Honey, I Shrunk The Kids (1989), Titanic (1997), Solaris (2002),
Avatar (2009)
Example 3
Simon Oakes –
Beyond The Rave (2008), Let Me In (2010), Wake Wood (2011)
Woman In Black (2012)
Production Roles - Screenwriter
Explanation
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Research the story, develop the narrative, writing the
screenplay, and delivering it to Development Executives.
Provide the blueprint in which the cast and crew develop
their creative ideas.
Example 1
Billy Ray –
Color of Night (1994), Volcano (1997), Suspect Zero (2004), State
of Play (2009), The Hunger Games (2012)
Example 2
John Logan –
Gladiator (2000), Stark Trek: Nemesis (2002), Sweeny Todd: The
Demon Barber on Fleet Street (2007), Hugo (2011), Skyfall (2012)
Example 3
Jane Goldman –
Stardust (2007), Kick-Ass (2010), X-Men: First Class (2011),
Woman In Black (2012)
Other Film Production Roles
Cinematographer
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Also known as the Director of Photography.
Prepare a list of all required camera equipment.
Works closely with the Director and Production Designer.
Gives the film it’s visual signature.
Editor
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Ensures the film flows effortlessly from start to end.
Assembles all the shots to create the final film.
Costume Designer
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Break down the script into scenes and make a list of the
number of characters who require costumes, and what
costumes will be required.
Colour is important as it is often used to reflect the characters
emotional state.
The task is complex as the plot has to be analyzed thoroughly
in order to understand the character and design an
appropriate costume.
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How Are Films Funded?
Film production is very expensive and finance is essential for every stage of the ‘film’s
life’ – production, marketing, distribution and exchange. Films can be funded in
various different ways: private and foreign investors, TV companies, lottery, the
government etc.
Investors:
• The type of investor can vary for any one film depending on the size of the company
producing the film.
• In the US for example, bigger companies such as DreamWorks and Warner Brothers are
able to fund their own productions through their cash flow and profit from previous
films.
• Independent producers are more likely to have a deal with another production studio.
The film will be developed under a housekeeping deal between the bigger studios who
invest their money, and they are given full control over the refusal or acceptance of the
film, which determines whether the invested money shall go towards the full
production of the film.
• The film company will usually approach the executive producer of a studio or
production company.
• The script, producer, director and actors/actresses may be the deciding factor for an
investor to go ahead with the deal.
• The film may also guarantee an audience, which will then provide good financial return
for the original investment.
How Are Films Funded?
Foreign Investment:
• UK film makers often look abroad for investment, and it is often provided by the US.
• Countries are likely to offer finance or tax incentives if the vast majority of
cinematography work is done there.
• Many foreign studios have financed ‘British’ films, such as: Chariots of Fire (1981),
Sense and Sensibility (1995), Emma (1996) and Hamlet (1996).
Private Investment:
• An uncommon method of financing a film.
• High costs of producing a film are too much for private investors to afford.
• The Business Expansion Scheme attracted many small-scale private investors by
allowing significant tax relief on investments of up to £40,000, which led to the
production of low and medium-budget films such as Henry V (1989).
• This scheme was replaced in 1994 by the Enterprise Investment Scheme which was a
tax-based investment programme.
• Investors were often offered roles in the film as extras if they invested at least £1,000.
• Production costs can easily be met by negotiating fees with crew members and
equipment suppliers, as well as securing product placement deals.
• Securing product placement deals involves branded products being used in the film –
the product gets advertised, which means more product for the advertisers, and the film
gets to use such props for free, or at a smaller fee.
• Examples include: Ray-Ban Wayfarer sunglasses being worn in Men In Black 1,2 and 3,
and the Champagnes, Vodka and cars featured in the Bond films.
How Are Films Funded?
The Government:
• In many European countries such as the UK and France, there are many government
subsidies to help fund the production, distribution, marketing and exchange of films.
• The French film industry is the strongest in Europe because of the taxes and
government contributions in the country.
• The government funding for film-making in the UK is very small in comparison, but
funding has risen from £14.9 million in 1988 to £27.7 million in 1994.
• Government money was funded through the UK Film Council (set up by the Labour
party) from 2000 to 2010.
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They were funded through sources such as the National Lottery.
It distributed around £27 million from the lottery and £27 million from the government
annually.
It was responsible for funding (in some way) British films such as: This Is England (2006),
Miss Potter (2006), St Trinians (2007) and Becoming Jane (2007).
The Council was abolished by the Conservative party in July 2010.
Many of it’s functions were passed on to the British Film Institute (BFI).
How Are Films Funded?
Television Companies:
• TV companies gain a financial return on their investment and the broadcast rights after
the film has been released in the cinema.
• New technologies for TVs such as satellite, cable and digital, has led to an increased
demand for films.
• TV investment in the UK is relatively low compared to in the US (HBO) and in France
(Canal+).
The main TV investors in the UK are:
• Channel 4 – it’s feature subsidy ‘Film Four’ makes it the biggest TV investor in Britain.
- Has contributed to over half of all the UK films made since the 1980s.
- Approx. 10% of annual programming budget is spent on new UK films
- Aims to co-produce 15-20 feature films per year.
• BBC – BBC Films has a relatively small budget but has helped to fund relatively large
films such as Billy Elliot in 2000.
- Intends to invest at least £100 million in the UK film industry over 10 years.
• ITV – The ITV Companies generally do not fund films, but began to notice Film Fours
success and has begun to invest.
Film Distribution Companies
The distribution process in the film industry involves promoting the products, and getting
the films released into the cinemas and out onto other formats such as Digital Download,
DVD, Blu-Ray etc.
In 2011, the 5 biggest film distributors in the UK and Republic of Ireland were:
Distributor
Market
share (%)
Number of films
released in 2011
Box office gross
(£ million)
Examples of films
Warner
Bros
18.2
30
210.4
Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows:
Part 2, The Hangover Part II, Sherlock
Holmes: A Game Of Shadows
Paramount
16.3
32
189.4
The Adventures of Tintin: The Secret of
the Unicorn, Kung Fu Panda 2, Mission:
impossible – Ghost Protocol,
Transformers: Dark of The Moon
20th
Century
Fox
12.1
31
140.0
Rio, Water For Elephants, Rise Of The
Planet Of The Apes, Mr. Popper’s
Penguins, Alvin and the Chipmunks:
Chipwrecked
Universal
11.8
34
136.9
Sanctum, Paul, Hop, Bridesmaids,
Cowboys & Aliens, Johnny English:
Reborn
Walt Disney
8.7
14
100.2
Prom, Pirates of the Caribbean: On
Stranger Tides, Cars 2, The Muppets
Film Technologies
Graphic tablets are now a common way
for storyboards to be produced for a film.
This allows designers to easily adapt and
change aspects such as sizing, colours,
positioning etc more quickly than with a
free-hand drawing. It also allows for
storyboards to be sent electronically,
which could be useful if foreign investors
are involved and the overall project is
developing in various countries. Graphic
tablets are also useful now for the
production of animated films, as it would
have all been produced by hand.
Digital cinematography is the process of
capturing motion pictures as digital
images. Avatar, was not only shot digitally
but also distributed digitally too. The use
of digital cameras now allows the sound to
be recorded in sync with the picture, which
would have originally been recorded
separately. 3D Cameras also allow the film
to be shot in 3 dimensions which adds a
bigger sense of reality and verisimilitude to
the film. One lens focuses on what is in the
foreground, and the other focuses on the
background image.
How are films distributed?
Distribution in the UK can be separated into three main stages:
• Licensing – the distributor acquires the legal right to exploit a film.
International distribution ensures that films are shown to 90+ market ‘territories.’
Major studios have their own distribution offices set up in these territories.
Local distribution is where the company acquires the license to exploit the film in a
particular country.
A distributor will usually be offered theatrical rights, for showing the film in cinemas;
video rights, for video and DVD exploitation; and TV rights, if the distributor is able
to sell the film to a broadcaster.
Once a license has been agreed, the distributor can then launch the film. A theatrical
(in the cinema) initial screening is the most effective way to gain interest in the film
from the audience. Considering that the distributor has been given the rights, the film
will then be released on other platforms following the theatrical release, and then
sometimes on TV too.
How are films distributed?
• Marketing – the marketing of a film’s release; ‘How?’ and ‘When?’
Films are usually released theatrically on Fridays in the UK; forthcoming releases are
scheduled, coordinated and published by the Film Distributors Association.
Distributors need to use this to find a ‘light’ Friday – a day where there are few, or no
other films being released at the same time – to ensure that they get the maximum
screen space and attention from audiences and critics in the press.
It is also important for distributors to find the best release date for the film
theatrically if it is a seasonal time; e.g. a Christmas film should be released in time for
Christmas viewing.
Distributors will also try to pick a release date where there are no other theatrical
films that have been released with a similar plot, actors, theme, genre etc.
After a release date has been set, distributors can then work on the materials and
marketing campaigns needed to get the audiences’ attention before the release.
Local distributors are also in charge of the ‘P&A’ (or Prints and Advertising) of
theatrical releases – this is used to help build publicity for a film.
How are films distributed?
• Logistics - supplying and circulating copies of the film to theatres, of tapes and
DVDs to shops and video rental stores, and managing the effectiveness of the
supply.
A full feature film will be about 5 or 6 reels each, stored in a single hard case and will
weigh about 20-25kg – so it is the distributor’s responsibility to ensure that it is
handled carefully, as they cost about £1,000 each.
Each print is made for repeat use, and is hired by the exhibitor for the duration of the
theatrical release.
Any single print needs to be moved many times from the main print warehouse, onto
a delivery van, to the cinema, onto an assembly bench, through the projector and then
back through the process and onto the next cinema, so they are more than often
damaged.
Digital Distribution
• New digital technology offers a great potential for increased profits, but may also
increase the dangers.
• Digital distribution will prevent the need to produce multiple prints – which can
work out to be quite expensive.
• But it might mean that in the future there will also be the chance to bypass cinemas,
which may take away the experience people enjoy of going to view the films on the
‘big-screen’.
• DVD and mid-range digital projection has replaced theatrical screenings in school
and film societies.
• The UK Film Council set up the DSN (Digital Screen Network) to establish a digital
distribution and exhibition program in cinemas. Compressed and encrypted files will
be sent directly to cinemas to be downloaded and de-encrypted to allow screening
on digital projection equipment. The aim is to get all films to be sent electronically to
cinemas in the future, eliminating the dependence of transport and also reducing
costs for the business.
• The increase in new technologies means that films can now also be streamed to
audiences in various different ways, such as; DVD, Blu-ray, Internet (e.g YouTube),
TV, On-Demand services (Virgin Media, Sky+ etc) and specialized film screening
services such as Netflix.
How Are Films Marketed?
• The aim of marketing is to raise awareness for a product.
• An audience needs to be informed that a film exists and they must be persuaded to
view it even if they don’t necessarily need or want it.
• The marketing of a film is often the jobs of the distributors .
• The marketing of a film usually begins months in advance to the film’s release.
• A marketing strategy is devised in order to find the film’s prime target audience.
Audience research will be conducted by the distributor in order to find out who will
be interested in the film.
• A preview screening(s) will be set up where the distributor can receive a range of
opinions and reactions to the film, which is a good indication of who the prime target
audience will be.
• A distributor will also look at weekly research known as tracking conducted by the
National Research Group. Tracking is used to measure the effectiveness of a film’s
marketing weeks before a film’s release, allowing adjustments to be made in time
for the film’s release.
• More up-to-date research has shown that the use of social networking sites such as
Twitter prove to be an even more effective way of gaining audience feedback before a
film’s release. E.g. reactions to trailers, posters etc.
The marketing process can be divided into three main areas…
How Are Films Marketed?
Advertising…
• An advertising campaign is devised by the distributor. This would include; trailers,
posters and spots on the radio, TV and in newspapers.
• TV and radio spots are particularly effective for airing interviews with some of the
cast and crew of a film, as they spark an interest for possible target audiences.
• The campaign is made consistent by promoting a single message about the film to the
audience.
• The USP (unique selling point) is often the starting point for this one message –
whether it’s the director, plot, cast, special effects etc. It is normally something that
differentiates the film from others.
• The trailer is also very important as it allows audiences to see what just a small
sample of the film would be like and should help to generate an interest in the film.
How Are Films Marketed?
Publicity…
• Free advertising that cannot be bought or is too expensive to buy.
• E.g. newspaper front covers, magazine covers, newspaper editorials, TV and radio
coverage.
• It also involves press kits for journalists, photographs, star interviews, press
screenings, gala premieres and free public screenings.
• Film festivals are a popular source of publicity for new films. Film festivals are very
popular and are held all around the world, such as Cannes and the Sundance
Festival.
How Are Films Marketed?
Promotional merchandising…
• Are an important feature of marketing films.
• Promotional merchandising, tie-ins and Original Sound Tracks are some of the most
important ways that initial budgets are recouped for a film.
• There is now a lot of conglomeration in the film industry, as a film can quite easily
become a part of a product line of:
• Toys
• Clothes
• Food and drink
• Video/computer games
• Novels
• Comics
• Other spin-offs
• The sales of these items help to promote the film whereas the film also encourages the
sales of merchandise.
How are films promoted?
Prints and Advertising (P&A)
Press materials:
Distributors will often try to gain as much
press coverage as possible; from images,
interviews with the cast and crew, film
trailers, previews and clips etc. Doing so
will help increase the profile and
desirability of the film.
Posters and other promotional artwork:
The cinema poster is the main source of campaigning
for the theatrical release of films. The design of the
poster has proved to be a key source f describing to
the audience what the film could potentially be about .
These posters can be purchased, advertised in the
cinema, published in the press, displayed on
billboards and other places such as bus stops and on
the underground.
New technology:
Print advertising in the UK is quite
expensive, so it is quite common now for
films to be advertised on other platforms
such as the internet, e-mail, radio and
mobiles. Distributors also commonly rely
on word-of-mouth as a way of reaching
out to their audiences.
Talent visits:
It is quite common for distributors to
arrange for the appearance of the main
cast and crew to appear for interviews in
the press and on the TV as this can often
spark an interest in the film.
Advanced Screenings:
Advanced public screenings are often a
method of creating word-of-mouth and
an extra buzz about a film.
Audience Theories
Cultural Industry:
•Horkheimer and Adorno (1944)
•Media texts are all produced in the same way marked by standardisation and
repetition.
•Are all inauthentic, repetitive and communicate at the level of the lowest common
denominator.
•Are all loaded with an idea that works to justify and naturalise social differences
in the real world.
•Produce a mass, passive and obedient audience of consumers who are lulled into
accepting the dreams and hopes offered. BRAINWASHING PEPOLE.
Encoding/decoding:
•Hall (1973)
•The audience determines how a specific code within a media text is perceived,
normally depends on their background.
•Preferred – the preferred code is fully understood and accepted by the audience.
•Negotiated – meaning of the code is broadly accepted but the audience may adapt
the message.
•Oppositional – meaning of the code is understood but the audience rejects the
intended meaning and creates their own alternative message.
Audience Theories
Uses and Gratifications:
•Katz and Blumler (1974)
•Different people will use the media text for different
purposes.
•Diversion – need to escape, entertain and relax.
•Personal relationships – need to interact with other people.
•Personal identity – need to define identity and sense of self.
•Surveillance – need to know what is going on in the world.
Hypodermic Needle:
•Injects ideas, messages and beliefs into the audience.
•Does not allow the audience to challenge or process such
data.
•The opinions or intellect of individuals are not relevant.