Nutrition Essentials: A Personal Approach
Unit Outline
OVERVIEW
To equip students with the science background necessary for the study of nutrition, Unit 4 offers students an opportunity to learn about the human body, and how to appreciate its complexity. Students will be amazed at the variety of metabolic activities that keep us alive, physically active, mentally alert, and healthy. A brief review of how the body is organized into cells, tissues, organs, and organ systems is presented with at least one major function of each organ system. Unit 4 reviews the human digestive system and explains how it is designed to receive food from many sources, process it into nutrients, transport the nutrients into the bloodstream, and eliminate the waste products. This Unit will assist students with Identifying some common as well as serious digestive system problems, including constipation, diarrhea, vomiting, heartburn, peptic ulcers, and irritable bowel syndrome. Students will also be able to discuss preventive measures and typical treatments for these conditions. Overall, students will learn that the human body is very much like a car engine—both are complex systems that need to generate energy, remove wastes, and store excess energy until needed.
LEARNING OUTCOMES
Module 4.1
1.
Explain how the body is organized into cells, tissues, organs, and organ systems.
2.
Identify the primary organs in each organ system.
3.
Discuss at least one major function of each organ system.
Module 4.2
1.
Define all of the key terms in this module.
2.
Explain the difference between mechanical and chemical digestion and provide an example of each.
3.
Identify organs and structures of the digestive system and describe their primary functions.
4.
Discuss the overall process of digestion and absorption.
Module 4.3
1.
Define all of the key terms in this module.
2.
Identify some common as well as serious digestive system problems and discuss preventive measures and typical treatments for these conditions.
Module 4.4
1.
Define all of the key terms in this module.
2.
Identify anabolic and catabolic processes.
3.
Identify factors that influence the amount of ATP production.
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Nutrition Essentials: A Personal Approach
Unit Outline
UNIT OUTLINE
I.
From Cells to Systems (Module 4.1)
A.
The Organization of Your Body
1.
Recall (Unit 1), a cell is the smallest living functional unit in your body
2.
Each type of cell has a specific function
3.
Each human cell has a membrane that surrounds it and controls the passage of nutrients and other substances into and out of the cell
4.
Review EC 4.1 Your Body’s Organization a.
Cell b.
Tissue – masses of cells that have similar characteristic functions c.
Organ – collection of tissue that function in a related fashion d.
Organ system – group of organs that work together for a similar purpose e.
Organism – organ systems that function together properly
B.
Your Body’s Organ Systems
1.
Organ systems are dependent on each other
2.
Review each system’s major organs or tissues and summaries of their primary functions: a.
Digestive b.
Cardiovascular c.
Respiratory d.
Lymphatic and Immune e.
Urinary f.
Muscular g.
Skeletal h.
Nervous i.
Endocrine j.
Integumentary k.
Reproductive
II.
Digestive System (Module 4.2)
A.
Overview of Digestion
1.
Humans are omnivores, organisms that can digest and absorb nutrients from plants; animals; fungi, which include mushrooms; and even bacteria
2.
Your cells need nutrients that are in food to carry out their work
3.
Digestion is the process of breaking down large food components into smaller substances (molecules), including individual nutrients a.
Mechanical digestion involves the physical breakdown of foods, including the biting action of teeth and mixing movements of the stomach
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Nutrition Essentials: A Personal Approach
Unit Outline b.
Chemical digestion refers to the chemical breakdown of foods y substances secreted into the digestive tract (“GI” tract)
4.
Absorption is the process by which nutrients and other substances are taken up by the digestive tract and enter the bloodstream or lymphatic system
B.
Your Digestive Tract
1.
The digestive tract forms a continuous muscular tube that begins at the mouth and ends with the anus
2.
Major organs of the tract include the mouth, esophagus, stomach, and small and large intestine
3.
Accessory organs of the digestive system assist the functioning of the digestive tract
4.
The teeth, tongue, salivary glands, liver, gallbladder, and pancreas are accessory organs
5.
Mouth a.
Digestion starts in the mouth b.
Teeth begin the mechanical digestion process c.
Salivary glands secrete saliva, a watery fluid that mixes with food and makes it easier to swallow d.
Enzymes are proteins that help certain changes occur, breakdown of large substances e.
The tongue senses the taste and texture of food and directs it to the back of the mouth to be swallowed i.
Taste buds on the tongue have specialized cells that help you distinguish sweet, sour, salty, bitter, and unami taste
The sense of smell also contributes to taste ii.
6.
Esophagus a.
The esophagus is a muscular tube that extends about 10 inches from the back of the mouth to the top of the stomach b.
What Happens When You Swallow? (EC 4.2) i.
The esophagus transfers a mass of swallowed food to the stomach ii.
iii.
When you swallow, the epiglottis closes over the trachea
After swallowing the mass of food, the epiglottis returns to its usual position iv.
Swallowing food stimulates peristalsis, waves of muscular activity along the digestive tract that help propel food material through the tract
7.
Lifesaving Lesson a.
The universal distress signal of choking is grabbing the throat with the hand b.
Choking danger signs include bluish skin color, difficulty breathing, inability to speak, and weak, ineffective coughing c.
The Heimlich maneuver is a first aid technique that can help clear the blocked airway of a choking person (EC 4.3 First Aid for Choking: The Heimlich
Maneuver)
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Nutrition Essentials: A Personal Approach
Unit Outline i.
ii.
Hands wrapped around the throat is the universal sign of choking
Abdominal thrusts may need to be repeated at least five times
(Performed on someone else) iii.
Lean over a chair forcefully repeating several times (Performed on yourself)
8.
Stomach a.
A muscular sac that can expand and hold about 4 to 6 cups of food after a typical meal b.
The lower gastroesophageal sphincter (LES) is the ring of muscular tissue that controls the opening to the stomach c.
Gastric juice, a watery solution of HCl and enzymes helps make proteins easier to digest; may kill dangerous bacteria d.
Mucus protects the stomach wall from its acids and enzymes e.
Food in a semisolid liquid form is called chyme; very few nutrients are absorbed from chime f.
The pyloric sphincter is the ring of muscular tissues at the base of the stomach g.
Larger meals take longer to empty the stomach than smaller meal
9.
Small Intestine a.
Has 3 sections: duodenum (first segment), jejunum (middle segment), ileum
(last segment) b.
Villi are tiny, fingerlike projections of the small intestinal lining that participate in digesting and absorbing food c.
Absorptive cells remove the by-products of digestion from chime d.
A tiny network of blood vessels form a capillary network e.
A lacteal, a lymphatic system of vessels carries fluid called lymph
10.
Nutrients dissolve in water entering the capillary network of the villus (EC 4.4 What
Happens to Water-Soluble Nutrients) a.
These nutrients are transported from the GI tract to the liver via the portal vein b.
The liver has many functions including monitoring the bloods nutrient contents, detoxifying many harmful substances, making glucose, and storing various nutrients c.
Nutrients that don’t dissolve in water (water-insoluble nutrients) such as fatty acids, need special treatment before they enter the bloodstream d.
A chylomicron is a lipid-rich particle that is coated with protein and phospholipids (easier to transport in blood) e.
Chylomicrons can move into a lacteal because they are too large to enter the capillary network, but they can move into a lacteal
11.
The Liver, Gallbladder, and Pancreas a.
In addition to the stomach and small intestine, the following accessory organs are involved in the process of digesting foods b.
The liver processes and stores many nutrients and releases them from storage when they are needed for:
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Nutrition Essentials: A Personal Approach
Unit Outline i. production of new cells and repairing damaged cells ii. makes cholesterol and uses the lipid to make bile iii. bile flows from the liver into the gallbladder where it is stored until needed c.
The gallbladder contracts when fat is in the small intestine, releasing bile into the duodenum d.
The pancreas produces and secretes most of the enzymes that break down carbohydrates, protein, and fat in the small intestine
12.
Large Intestine a.
Two major sections: the colon and the rectum b.
The colon is the primary section of the large intestine and is connected to the
rectum, a lower section of the large intestine c.
The large intestine has no villi; water absorption and some minerals d.
Water is absorbed from the chime and becomes a semisolid and is called feces or stools e.
Feces remain in the rectum until muscular contractions move the material into the anal canal and then out of the body through the anus
13.
Intestinal Bacteria a.
These bacteria use fermentation, a chemical process that converts undigested food material to substances the bacteria can use for their nutrient needs b.
Intestinal bacteria can make the vitamins K and biotin, which can absorb, and produce substances that your colon cells can use for energy c.
Bacteria contribute to flatulence – the release of intestinal gases that are expelled through your anus d.
Harmful bacteria may flourish in the colon and limit the growth of the “good” bacteria when you take antibiotics e.
Probiotics are live, active cultures of beneficial microbes that may help maintain or re-establish the normal balance of bacterial populations in your colon f.
Starvation, antibiotic use, and excessive emotional stress can upset the normal balance of intestinal bacteria and result in intestinal infections
C.
Digestive System Summary
1.
The mouth is where digestion begins
2.
Food is mixed in the stomach with gastric juice and gradually releases chime and into small intestine
3.
The small intestine is the major site of digestion and absorption
4.
The liver receives, processes, stores, and releases many products of digestion
5.
The remaining water and minerals in chyme are removed in the large intestine where feces is formed
6.
The rectum stores feces until a bowel movement occurs
III.
Common Digestive System Disorders (Module 4.3)
A.
Constipation
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Nutrition Essentials: A Personal Approach
Unit Outline
1.
A healthy person should have a bowel movement at least every three days
2.
Constipation is a condition that occurs when bowel movements occur less frequently than normal and/or are difficult to eliminate
3.
Factors that may influence your frequency of bowel movements a.
Lack of dietary fiber b.
Low water intake c.
Anxiety, depression, and other psychological disturbances d.
Lack of exercise
4.
Changes in your typical routine, such as taking a long trip or having major surgery
5.
Hemorrhoids are swollen veins in the anal canal that can cause itching and bleeding
6.
Diverticula are tiny pouches that can form in the lining of the large intestine and can trap bacteria
B.
Diarrhea
1.
Diarrhea is a condition characterized by frequent, loose stools
2.
More water than normal is secreted into the GI tract or the tract absorbs less water than normal
3.
Infectious bacteria or viruses produce irritating or toxic substances that increase the movements of the GI tract
4.
Increased motility enables the large intestine to eliminate the watery feces and the toxic material it contains rapidly
5.
Loperamide , an over-the-counter medicine, can be helpful for relieving an occasional bout of mild diarrhea
6.
Prompt treatment is especially crucial for infants and the elderly because they can become dehydrated
7.
Foods that contain probiotics, such as certain brands of cultured milk and yogurt, may help restore the normal bacterial population of your large intestine
C.
Vomiting
1.
Vomiting is the body’s way of removing harmful food or beverage
2.
It prevents toxic substances from entering your small intestine
3.
Motion sickness and morning sickness and unpleasant odors may cause vomiting
4.
Treatment includes avoiding solid food until the vomiting resolves
5.
Sipping small amounts of fluids can help maintain body water
6.
Vomiting does not generally last more than 24 hrs
D.
Acid Reflux
1.
Acid reflux occurs when the lower gastroesophageal sphincter doesn’t function properly and opens when it should be closed
2.
The stomach’s contents can flow back into the esophagus irritating the lining of the esophagus causing heartburn
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Nutrition Essentials: A Personal Approach
Unit Outline
3.
Heartburn is a gnawing pain or burning sensation generally felt in the upper chest, under the breastbone
4.
Factors that can contribute include: pregnancy, having excess body fat, drinking alcohol, smoking cigarettes, lying down soon after eating a large meal, and consuming certain foods
5.
Commonly consumed foods, condiments and beverages that can contribute include: fatty or greasy foods, ketchup, mustard, vinegar, carbonated beverages, tomatobased sauces, peppermint, coffee, alcohol, chocolate, citrus fruits, and juices
E.
Gastroesophageal Reflux Disease (GERD)
1.
GERD can be caused by frequent acid reflux
2.
Symptoms of GERD include: acid reflux, nausea, gagging, chronic dry cough, hoarse voice
3.
To reduce your risk and manage GERD a.
Take over the counter antacids to neutralize excess stomach acid b.
Lose the excess weight, if you have too much belly fat c.
Do not lie down with 2 to 3 hours after eating d.
Do not overeat at mealtimes e.
Avoid smoking cigarettes f.
Elevate the head of your bed 4 to 6 inches higher than the foot of the bed g.
Do not wear tight belts or clothing that flatten the abdomen h.
Avoid food that often cause acid reflux
4.
GERD can damage the lining of the esophagus and contribute to the development of sores called ulcers
F.
Peptic Ulcers
1.
A peptic ulcer is a sore that occurs in the lining of the upper digestive tract
(duodenum, stomach, esophagus)
2.
The layer of mucus that protects the stomach and small intestine breaks down
3.
HCL and protein-digesting enzymes reach the stomach and intestinal walls, destroying the tissue
4.
The ulcer may injure the wall of a blood vessel and can cause bleeding a.
Signs and symptoms include: a gnawing or burning pain in the upper abdomen, vomiting fresh blood or vomit that looks like “coffee grounds” and black tarry stool b.
Factors that increase the risk include: a bacterial infection, excessive stomach acid, smoking cigarettes, heavy alcohol consumption, family history, and frequent use of nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs)
5.
Treatment may include antibiotics and medications that control stomach acid production
G.
Gallstones
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Nutrition Essentials: A Personal Approach
Unit Outline
1.
Gallstones consist of cholesterol and can be small and grainy, like particles of sand or as large as a coin
2.
Presents as severe pain in the upper right section of your mid-section within an hour of eating a fatty meal
3.
May block the passageway that carries bile to the duodenum
4.
Surgery is required to remove the diseased gallbladder
H.
Irritable Bowel Syndrome (IBS)
1.
People with IBS suffer experience frequent bouts of intestinal cramps with diarrhea or constipation
2.
Certain foods and beverages as well as emotional stress may trigger the disorder
3.
Treatment may involve: a.
Eliminating foods that seem to trigger IBS symptoms b.
Learning stress management strategies c.
Obtaining psychological counseling d.
Taking antidepressant and other medication
I.
Ulcerative Colitis (UC)
1.
UC is a chronic inflammatory bowel disease that causes ulcers in the inner lining of the large intestine
2.
Inflammation erodes the colon’s lining causing cramping, rectal bleeding, and diarrhea
3.
Other signs and symptoms include: anemia, fatigue, fever, nausea, and appetite and weight loss
4.
Genetic factors are suspected to play a role
5.
No cure for UC; treatment includes medication to reduce inflammation
6.
Patients have a risk for colon cancer
J.
Colorectal Cancer
1.
Cancer that starts in either the colon or the rectum
2.
Colorectal cancer is the second leading cause of cancer deaths among adults in the
US
3.
Signs and symptoms include: a.
having diarrhea or constipation b.
feeling that your bowel doesn’t empty completely after bowel movements c.
finding blood in your stool d.
noticing that your stools are narrower than usual e.
having gas pains or cramps f.
losing weight with trying g.
feeling very tired all the time h.
having nausea or vomiting
4.
Risk factors include:
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Nutrition Essentials: A Personal Approach
Unit Outline a.
Being over 50 years of age b.
Having colorectal polyps c.
Having a family history of colorectal cancer d.
Having a personal history of cancer e.
Having inflammatory bowel disease f.
Eating certain foods g.
Smoking cigarettes
5.
Treatment options usually involve surgery, chemotherapy, biological therapy, or radiation therapy or a combination of therapies
IV.
Metabolism Basics (Module 4.4)
A.
A Remarkable Machine
1.
The human body can repair, maintain, and even build itself
2.
Biological fuels derived from foods and beverages help it run
3.
Like a car, your body’s performance can be improved when it has access to an adequate and high-quality fuel supply
B.
Energy is the capacity to perform work
1.
There are several forms of energy, including chemical, mechanical, electrical, heat solar, and nuclear
2.
The cells in our body release, transfer and use energy constantly
3.
Metabolism is the sum of all chemical reactions that occur in living cells, including the reactions that release energy from macronutrients, make proteins, and eliminate waste products a.
Catabolism is a metabolic process that breaks down larger substances into smaller ones b.
Anabolism is a metabolic process that builds larger substances from smaller ones
4.
Much of the energy released by catabolic reactions is captured in a chemical form in the energy molecule adenosine triphosphate (ATP)
5.
When adequate oxygen is present in a cell, the cell can make lots of ATP (aerobic metabolism)
6.
When the ATP supply is inadequate, cells can obtain ATP using a metabolic pathway that doesn’t require oxygen (anaerobic metabolism)
7.
Your cells rely heavily on fat and glucose for energy or as biological fuels in the CNS and other major metabolic pathways
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