Poli 64
Modern Political Thought
TURN YOUR PHONE OFF!
November 17 1558
Elizabethan Age begins
Queen Mary I, the monarch of England and Ireland since 1553, dies
and is succeeded by her 25-year-old half-sister, Elizabeth.
The two half-sisters, both daughters of King Henry VIII, had a stormy relationship during Mary's
five-year reign. Mary, who was brought up as a Catholic, enacted pro-Catholic legislation and
made efforts to restore the pope to supremacy in England. A Protestant rebellion ensued, and
Queen Mary imprisoned Elizabeth, a Protestant, in the Tower of London on suspicion of
complicity. After Mary's death, Elizabeth survived several Catholic plots against her; though her
ascension was greeted with approval by most of England's lords, who were largely Protestant and
hoped for greater religious tolerance under a Protestant queen. Under the early guidance of
Secretary of State Sir William Cecil, Elizabeth repealed Mary's pro-Catholic legislation,
established a permanent Protestant Church of England, and encouraged the Calvinist reformers in
Scotland.
QUIZ: Which of the following is NOT one of the original Marx Brothers?
Zeppo
Karl
Harpo
Groucho
Answer: CHICO
Zeppo
Groucho
Quiz bonus: Which Marx Brother is missing?
Harpo
KARL MARX
Important dates:
1818 born in Trier, Germany
1841 Doctorate from U. Jena
1842 Newspaper editor, Bonn
1843 Moves to Paris, meets Engels
(“Paris Manuscripts”)
1845 Moves to Belgium
(“German Ideology” 1846)
(“Communist Manifesto 1848)
1849 Moves to London
(Writes “later” works, including
“Capital”)
1883 dies. Buried in Highgate Cemetery
Important concepts:
Critique
Class
Materialism
Labor
Dialectic
Communism
Alienation
Central themes in the socialist tradition
“Communism” is an ideal with a long history, stretching back (at least) to Plato
and early Christianity. “Communism” implies common holding and equal sharing of
material goods and social authority
“Socialism” is a particularly modern tradition of the communist ideal. “Socialism” is a
communal ideology for modern, mass, industrial societies.
Philosophical foundations:
1. Critique of existing society
Moral critique: present as “unjust”
Material critique: present as “inefficient”
2. Belief in human perfectibility
Moral critique: change “hearts and minds”
Material critique: change institutions and practices
3. Belief in virtues of communal life
Pastoral vision: small, face to face, self-sufficient communities
Technocratic vision: large, technologically advanced communities
4. Belief in revolutionary change
Non-violent ideal: change by protest and education
Violent ideal: change by open violent conflict
5. Internationalism
National differences/identities replaced by class differences/identities
The presuppositions of Marx’s Materialist Conception of History
1. A dialectical philosophy of history (Hegel’s legacy)
o
History as progressive realization of reason
o Realization of reason through dissolution of alienation
o
Historical change as overcoming of contradictions
The presuppositions of Marx’s Materialist Conception of History
1. A dialectical philosophy of history (Hegel’s legacy)
2. A historical materialist theory
o Against idealism (against Hegel)
o Against “essentialist” materialism (against Feuerbach)
o Human nature is historical
§
§
§
What makes humans capable of “history” is the human
capacity for labor
 (NB: contrast “human” and “natural” history)
Realization of reason is the dissolution of conditions of
alienated labor
Historical progress is driven by overcoming of material
contradictions between realities and possibilities of
productive activity
The presuppositions of Marx’s Materialist Conception of History
1. A dialectical philosophy of history
2. A historical materialist theory
3. A critical theory or form of critique (Ideologiekritik)
o A “scientific” theory with practical, political intent.
Dimensions:
Descriptive: Analysis of social formations
Explanatory: Analysis of social change
Practical: Analysis of capitalist society
Marx’s Materialist Conception of History
Descriptive: What is society, how is it structured?
Society = “Mode of Production”
Causal effects?
Ideology
Relations of production
Forces (means) of production
Superstructure
OR
Base
Analytical points: Base “conditions” superstructure
“Ruling ideas” reflect interests of “ruling class”
Revolutionary change: resolving the “primacy
puzzle”
Marx’s Materialist Conception of History
Explanatory: How do societies change?
Logic of change: Stability
Conditions of change
subjective
objective
Forces change
Crisis
Revolutionary
consciousness
Revolution
material
class
ideological
Contradictions
Analytical points:
Ruling classes try to “fetter” development of productive forces
Revolutionary classes try to advance development of productive forces
Revolutions can only succeed when all necessary conditions are present
Marx’s Materialist Conception of History
Practical: How can we emancipate ourselves?
Prerequisite of action: knowledge of historical possibilities
The development of human societies
Social structure
Material conditions
“Mode of production”
Pre-class/classless
Extreme scarcity
“primitive” communism
Class based
Unequal scarcity
Ancient
Feudal
Capitalist
Early capitalism
Post-class/classless
Artificial scarcity
Abundance
Late capitalism
Communism
Marx’s Materialist Conception of History
Practical: How can we emancipate ourselves?
Prerequisite of action: knowledge of historical possibilities
Analytical points:
Historical progress advances development of productive forces
Capitalism enables – and is – the realization of the
possibility of abundance
Historical change “simplifies” class structures
In capitalism, classes are “reduced” to 2: those who own,
and those who work the means of production. Relations
are “reduced” to economic exploitation
Capitalism must be overthrown for progress – and freedom
– to be realized.
Capitalism is the first mode of production predicated
on the development of productive forces. Capitalism
cannot continue by developing productive forces.
Marx’s critique of capitalism
Capitalism is self-subverting:
The premise of capitalist production is continuous development of productive
forces, BUT
The social relations of capitalism cannot sustain continued development of
productive forces
The logic of capitalist production
“Capital” (productive capacity) has two components:
“Constant” capital (resources, tools, machinery);
“Variable” capital (human labor)
Process of competition:
1. Goal of capitalist: maximization of profit. Means: raise prices
and/or cut costs
2. Competition makes price raising untenable; costs must be cut
3. Cost cutting achieved by reducing “variable” expenses, increasing
ratio of “constant” expenses to “variable” expenses
4. Successful firms are “efficient” – producing more for less
Marx’s critique of capitalism
Process of competition (continued):
5. Effects on social relations: for capitalists, “proletarianization”;
for workers, “emiseration”
6. Effects on productive activity:
Concentration of capital: growth of monopolies
Contraction of markets: less wealth available for
consumption of products
Decline of profits, further sharpening of competition
CRISIS OF “OVERPRODUCTION”
Repeated cycling of process
7. Solution to crises of overproduction: Suppress demand
(“dictatorship of bourgeoisie”) and/or suppress production
Capitalism cannot enable the continued development of productive
forces, or the realization of freedom for all. Capitalism is “selfsubverting.”
The effects of “alienated labor” (or, the moral dimension of
the material critique)
1. Alienation from the product of labor (products become
commodities, and
objects “control” people)
2. Alienation from the process of labor (labor becomes “work,”
controlled by others)
3. Alienation from one’s “species being” (labor is stripped of
individual meaning;relations between individuals are stunted,
mediated by objects)
4. Alienation from other laborers (labor becomes basis
of competition)
The point of Marx’s account of alienation:
In conditions of scarcity, alienation is inevitable.
In conditions of abundance, alienation is inefficient – and
morally reprehensible
Marx on Communism
Transitional stage: “Socialism” – the “dictatorship of the proletariat”
-- “The only way for individuals to control modern universal interaction is to make it
subject to the control of all”
-- The proletariat is the “universal class”; its interest is the interest of freedom for all
-- Working class uses state power to suppress the interests of the bourgeoisie, and
eliminate the vestiges of capitalist social relations
-- As the need for class competition decreases, the state “withers away”
Communism: The end of “prehistory” and the beginning of human freedom
-- “The administration of things replaces the administration of men”
-- “The free development of each is the condition for the free development of all”
-- A “Society of free social individuals”
-- In a condition of abundance and freedom, the principle of production and
distribution should be “From each according to his ability, to each according
to his need”
The failure of Marxism in practice: Bad theory or inappropriate application?