‘I exhort the international community to
adopt an even more unanimous and
effective strategy against human
trafficking, so that in every part of the
world, men and women may no longer
be used as a means to an end and that
their inviolable dignity may always be
respected.’
The Holy Father Pope Francis, 10 April 2014
2014
Invincible Ignorance? Reintegration
Quandary of Male Victims of Trafficking in
Cambodia
Sotheary Ly
Oxford Brookes University’s Center for
Development and Emergency Practice
This dissertation is submitted in partial fulfilment of
the requirement for the Degree Master of Arts in
Development and Emergency Practice
(CENDEP)
9/26/2014
This dissertation is dedicated to Rosalie, my soon to be five year-old daughter
and to
All my family.
Table of Contents
Abstract ......................................................................................................................... i
Acknowledgements ...................................................................................................... ii
Statement of Originality and Ethics Declarations .......................................................... iv
List of Figures, Tables and Boxes ................................................................................... v
Acronyms .................................................................................................................... vi
Glossary of Terms ....................................................................................................... vii
Structure of the Research ............................................................................................ xi
Chapter One: Research Design and Methodologies ....................................................... 1
Methodologies .................................................................................................................. 1
Secondary Data Collection ........................................................................................... 2
Primary Data Collection ................................................................................................ 3
Selection Criteria .......................................................................................................... 5
Data Analysis ................................................................................................................ 6
Ethical Considerations....................................................................................................... 7
Limitations......................................................................................................................... 8
Chapter Two: Introduction .......................................................................................... 10
Complexity of Human-trafficking .................................................................................... 10
Trafficking of Men – An Emerging Issue ......................................................................... 11
Aim and Research Question ............................................................................................ 12
Chapter Three: Background......................................................................................... 13
Human-trafficking in the Cambodian Context ................................................................ 13
Statistical Data on Cambodian Migrants in Thailand ...................................................... 16
The Cambodian Migrants in Thai Fishing Boats .............................................................. 16
Journey of Cambodian Migrants Prior to Deportation to Cambodia ............................. 17
The UN Palermo Protocol – The Definition of Trafficking .............................................. 19
The Question of Boundaries and State Sovereignty ....................................................... 20
The Link between Victim Status and Human Rights Protection ..................................... 21
The Absence of Reintegration Support in the Palermo Protocol ................................... 21
Chapter Four: Literature Review ................................................................................. 23
The Definition of Reintegration ...................................................................................... 23
Reintegration and Social Inclusion .................................................................................. 25
Determining Potential Factors for a Successful Reintegration ....................................... 26
Key Challenges in Successful Reintegration .................................................................... 27
The Role of Immediate Society in Reintegration - The Family, Neighbours and Villagers
......................................................................................................................................... 28
Gaps in the Reintegration of Male Victims of Trafficking ............................................... 30
Chapter Five: Findings and Discussions ........................................................................ 33
Case Study ....................................................................................................................... 33
Discussion of Findings ..................................................................................................... 38
Key Finding One: Exploitation is Very Evident ................................................................ 39
The Bi-Yearly Wage Payment ..................................................................................... 40
A System of Forced Dependency................................................................................ 40
Key Finding Two: A Reintegration Support Package Is Important – The Male Victims;
and Difference in Gender Needs..................................................................................... 42
Male Trafficked Victims .............................................................................................. 42
Gender Considerations on Reintegration Support ..................................................... 44
Key Finding Three: Reintegration Support Has the Potential to Stop Victims and
Migrants from Re-Migrating ........................................................................................... 47
The New Migrant Who Comes to Terms with Exploitation ....................................... 48
The Age Factor ............................................................................................................ 48
Adequate Reintegration Support vs Re-Migration..................................................... 50
Key Finding Four: Successful Reintegration is Likely but Would Require More Time for
the Impact to be realised ................................................................................................ 53
Key Potential Factors Lead to Successful Reintegration ............................................ 53
Motivation is Most Critical Factor .............................................................................. 55
Can Sustainability of the NGOs and Functional Government Agency be an Answer to
the Reintegration and Illegal Migration Challenge? .................................................. 55
Chapter Six: Recommendations and Conclusion .......................................................... 57
Recommendations .......................................................................................................... 57
Conclusion ....................................................................................................................... 58
References.................................................................................................................. 61
Appendices ................................................................................................................. 67
Photos credit on cover page: Labor Rights Promotion Network
Sources: Quotes of Father Francis (Mckenna, 2014)
Abstract
While the trafficking of women and children for sexual exploitation has received global
attention, trafficking of men for labour exploitation has been largely ignored. Nearly 4%
of Cambodia’s population, a majority being men, are working in Thailand, both legally and
illegally, in sectors such as fishing, construction, plantation, etc. Being Illegal migrants,
men are often enslaved, exploited, abused, arrested and imprisoned before being
deported back to Cambodia.
The lack of proper identification of victims by Cambodia and Thailand poses challenges in
their protection. Many male victims of trafficking and exploited male migrants do not
receive the support and protection they are entitled to under the UN’s Palermo Protocol.
A critical support which would help such victims to rehabilitate and reduce their
vulnerability to re-trafficking is ‘Reintegration Support’. The availability of such
Reintegration Support has however been rather limited in Cambodia thus far. Indeed,
most male migrants deported from Thailand are unable to get any assistance at all.
This study then explores whether there is a ‘Reintegration Support’ Package or Model
suitable to the needs of male trafficked victims that would help them to successfully
reintegrate into their community and eliminating their dependency on re-migration which
could heighten their vulnerability to re-trafficking and re-exploitation. The study employs
both primary and secondary data collection methods, and the responses are then
analysed qualitatively.
The main finding of this research indicates that such Reintegration Support is crucially
important in reducing the susceptibility of male victims and migrants to trafficking and
exploitation, which will reduce their vulnerability to exploitation through re-migration.
The finding also indicates that given the right Package the successful reintegration of men
into their communities is possible. However further time is needed to understand the full
impact of Reintegration Support, as Cambodia has begun to provide such support only
recently.
Acknowledgements
First and foremost, I’d like to express my profound thanks to the Foreign and
Commonwealth Office of the UK Government for providing me a fully-funded ‘Chevening
Scholarships’, an invaluable opportunity to undertake a Masters in Development and
Emergency Practice at the Oxford Brookes University.
A special thanks to Her Excellency Chou Bun Eng, the Secretary of State in the Ministry of
Interior, Royal Government of Cambodia who is concurrently the Chairperson of the
General Secretariat of the National Committee to Combat Trafficking in Persons (NCCT),
for her expertise and insights particularly in the role of the government in providing
support to victims and migrants in Cambodia.
I would also like to acknowledge the courageous men who opened their hearts and
shared their stories on their trafficking journey with me. Your contribution has greatly
enriched the outcomes of my study. I hope this study can act a as a stepping stone to
further expose the issue of trafficking of men, so that improved support services are
provided to them.
A wealth of valuable information on trafficking of men in Cambodia and the region was
given to me by the dedicated individuals who are pioneering experts in providing support
and services to male victims of trafficking and migrants in Cambodia. Thus my deepest
appreciation and thanks to Bruno Maltoni, Lim Siv Hong, Ly Vichuta, Lim Tith and Pin
Tithya for sharing your experiences and expertise with me.
This study would not become a reality without the help of four committed individuals
who provided me with valuable information on trafficking and made arrangements for
me to conduct interviews with the male victims and migrants and their families. They also
assisted me in the administration of the short questionnaire in my study. So, thank you
Sok Saran, Hour Ngy, Pin Somaly and Chham Bunthat. Continue doing your great work to
support the marginalised people in Cambodian society.
I would also like to express my deepest appreciation and gratitude to my Supervisor
Richard Carver for his excellent guidance, his caring and patience and in giving me the
feeling of self-assurance and gratification in completing this research. Your technical,
moral and physical support and encouragement was really inspirational to me. My thanks
also go to all the staff at CENDEP.
A heartfelt thanks to M. P. Joseph, former Chief Technical Advisor of the ILO in Cambodia,
who was always willing to help me with his experience in Cambodia and his
understanding of the issue of trafficking and migration. His wisdom, knowledge and belief
in me inspired and motivated me to do this research to my highest standards.
Last but not least, I’d like to extend my wholehearted gratitude to my family – my
parents, siblings and the family for your support, encouragement, and so lovingly and
unselfishly taking care of my little four year old Rosalie during my study abroad. The time
away has been most challenging, but your ongoing assurance and support has made me
feel how lucky I am to be part of the family. I feel so indebted to you all.
Thank you so much dearest Rosalie for your understanding, patience and endurance and
as said “mummy is doing this for you!”
Statement of Originality and Ethics Declarations
This thesis is the result of my own independent work/investigation, except where
otherwise stated. Other sources are acknowledged by explicit references.
Signed: ……………………………………..
Date: ……… September 2014
Sotheary LY
I hereby give consent for my thesis, if accepted, to be available for photocopying and for
inter-library loan, and for the title and summary to be made available to outside
organisations.
Signed: ……………………………………..
Date: ……… September 2014
Sotheary LY
Statement of Ethics Review Approval
This dissertation involved human participants. A Form E1BE for each group of
participants, showing ethics review approval, has been attached to this dissertation as an
appendix.
List of Figures, Tables and Boxes
List of Figures
Figure 1:
Figure 2:
Figure 3:
Figure 4:
Figure 5:
Figure 6:
Figure 7:
Countries of origin, transit and destination of human-trafficking victims
Cycle of migration and exploitation?
TIER ranking for Cambodia and Thailand between 2007-2014
Top ten countries of origins and destinations for human-trafficking victims:
Assisted by IOM in 2011
Major routes Cambodian migrants migrate to; identify and repatriate from
Case Study: Number of clients assisted at the transit shelter
Case Study: Source provinces of clients
List of Tables
Table 1:
Table 2:
Table 3:
Table 4:
Table 5:
Table 6:
Table 7:
Table 8:
Table 9:
Table 10:
List of key informants – government, UN agencies and NGOs
List of male victims and migrants and a family member
TIER’s meaning
Demographic characteristics of the victims and migrants
Four key themes emerged from the interviewees
Key finding 1: Exploitation is very evident
Key finding 2: Reintegration support is very important
Key finding 3: Reintegration support has potential to stop re-migration
Responses from 20 male victims and migrants
Key finding 4: Successful reintegration is likely but more time required for
impact to be realised
List of Boxes
Box 1:
Box 2:
Box 2a, b & c
Box 3:
Box 4:
Box 5:
Box 6:
Box 7:
Box 8:
The potential factors which could lead to successful reintegration
The case study’s methodology: Analysis of 1,137 case profiles
Case study: Brief analysis of the 1,137 case profiles
Manifest of exploitation exemplifying by Thai employer
A reintegration support package, experienced by an NGO
Fruition of reintegration support tailored at the male victims’ needs
Gender challenge regarding programme support
The age factor
Key potential factors lead to successful reintegration
Acronyms
FAO
Food and Agriculture Organisation
HCC
Healthcare Center for Children
ILO
International Labour Organisation
IOM
International Organisation for Migration
LSCW
Legal Support for Children and Women
M&E
Monitoring and Evaluation
MoLVT
Ministry of Labour and Vocational Training
MoSVY
Ministry of Social Affairs, Veterans and Youth Rehabilitation
NCCT
National Committee for Counter Trafficking in Persons
NCS, S.T.S.L.S
The Secretariat of the National Committee to Lead the Suppression of
Human Trafficking, Smuggling, Labour Exploitation and Sexual
Exploitation of Women and Children
NGOs
Non-Governmental Organisations (both local and international
organisations)
U.S.DOS
U.S. Department of State
UN-ACT
United Nations Action for Cooperation against Trafficking in Persons
UNICEF
The United Nations Children’s Fund
UNODC
United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime
WHO
World Health Organisation
WI
Winrock International
Glossary of Terms
Term
Meaning
Invincible ignorance; modern slavery; Sex trafficking; Labour trafficking; Labour
exploitation; Bonded labour/Debt bondage, Forced labour; Child labour; Reintegration
support/assistance; Social reintegration; Culture reintegration; Economic reintegration;
Smuggling; Assisted migration; Undocumented migrant workers.
Invincible
ignorance:
Ignorance is defined as “a lack of knowledge that a person ought to have”
(Akin, 1999). Ignorance is invincible if “a person could not remove it by
applying reasonable diligence in determining the answer” (Akin, 1999). So
is trafficking of men an invincible ignorance? Or it is instead a vincible
ignorance, where “a person could remove it by applying reasonable
diligence? From the discussion, it is understandable that the trafficking of
men has been long ignored due to cultural and gender issues and a
misplaced notion that human trafficking is only about sexual exploitation
of women and children and that men cannot be the victims because of
their strength and masculinity (Akin, 1999).
Modern slavery
Modern slavery takes many forms, and is known by many names: slavery,
forced labour, human trafficking etc.
‘Slavery’ refers to the condition of treating another person as if s/he were
property – something to be bought, sold, traded or even destroyed.
‘Forced labour’ is a related but not identical concept, referring to work
taken without consent, by threats or coercion.
‘Human trafficking’ is another related concept, referring to the process
through which people are brought, through deception, threats or
coercion, into slavery, forced labour or other forms of severe
exploitation.
Sex trafficking
Whatever term is used, the significant characteristic of all forms of
modern slavery is that it involves one or more persons depriving other
people of their freedom to leave one job for another, their freedom to
leave one workplace for another, their freedom to control their own body
(Walk Free Foundation, 2013a).
When a person is coerced, forced, or deceived into prostitution – or
maintained in prostitution through coercion – that person is a victim of
trafficking. All of those involved in recruiting, transporting, harbouring,
receiving, or obtaining the person for that purpose have committed the
crime of sex trafficking. Sex trafficking can also occur within debt
bondage, as women and girls are forced to continue in prostitution
through the use of unlawful “debt” purportedly incurred through their
transportation, recruitment, or even their crude “sale,” which exploiters
insist they must pay off before they can be free.
It is critical to understand that a person’s initial consent to participate in
prostitution is not legally determinative; if the person is thereafter held in
service through psychological manipulation or physical force, that person
is a trafficking victim and should receive the benefits outlined in the
United Nations’ Palermo Protocol and applicable laws (U.S. Department
of State, 2014).
Labour
trafficking
The U.S. Trafficking Victims Protection Act of 2000 (TVPA) defines labour
trafficking as: “The recruitment, harbouring, transportation, provision, or
obtaining of a person for labour or services, through the use of force,
fraud or coercion for the purpose of subjection to involuntary servitude,
peonage, debt bondage or slavery.” There are several forms of
exploitative practices linked to labour trafficking, including bonded
labour, forced labour and child labour (U.S. Department of Health and
Human service, 2012, n.p).
Labour
exploitation
Labour exploitation is work obtained from a person under threat (real or
perceived) and which the person has not offered themselves voluntarily
(ILO, 1930).
Labour exploitation is also often an element of human trafficking.
According to the Palermo Protocol to Prevent, Suppress and Punish
Trafficking in Persons, human trafficking is the combination of movement
or harbouring of a person; use of deception or coercion; and placement
into situations of exploitation (UNODC, 2004). Trafficking in persons, for
all forms of exploitation including labour exploitation, is an international
criminal offence. This is also often referred to as slavery (World Vision
Australia, p.1).
Bonded labour,
or debt
bondage,
Is probably the least known form of labour trafficking today, and yet it is
the most widely used method of enslaving people. Victims become
bonded labourers when their labour is demanded as a means of
repayment for a loan or service in which its terms and conditions have
not been defined or in which the value of the victims’ services as
reasonably assessed is not applied toward the liquidation of the debt. The
value of their work is greater than the original sum of money “borrowed.”
(U.S. Department of Health and Human service, 2012, n.p).
Forced labour
Is a situation in which victims are forced to work against their own will,
under the threat of violence or some other form of punishment, their
freedom is restricted and a degree of ownership is exerted. Forms of
forced labour can include domestic servitude; agricultural labour;
sweatshop factory labour; janitorial, food service and other service
industry labour; and begging (U.S. Department of Health and Human
service, 2012, n.p).
Child labour
Is a form of work that is likely to be hazardous to the health and/or
physical, mental, spiritual, moral or social development of children and
can interfere with their education. The International Labour Organization
estimates worldwide that there are 246 million exploited children aged
between 5 and 17 involved in debt bondage, forced recruitment for
armed conflict, prostitution, pornography, the illegal drug trade, the
illegal arms trade and other illicit activities around the world (U.S.
Department of Health and Human service, 2012, n.p).
Modern slavery
Modern slavery takes many forms, and is known by many names: slavery,
forced labour, human trafficking etc.
‘Slavery’ refers to the condition of treating another person as if s/he were
property – something to be bought, sold, traded or even destroyed.
‘Forced labour’ is a related but not identical concept, referring to work
taken without consent, by threats or coercion.
‘Human trafficking’ is another related concept, referring to the process
through which people are brought, through deception, threats or
coercion, into slavery, forced labour or other forms of severe
exploitation.
Reintegration
(culture)
Whatever term is used, the significant characteristic of all forms of
modern slavery is that it involves one or more persons depriving other
people of their freedom to leave one job for another, their freedom to
leave one workplace for another, their freedom to control their own body
(Walk Free Foundation, 2013a).
Re-adoption on the part of the returning migrant of the values, way of
living, language, moral principles, ideology, and traditions of the society
of his or her country of origin (IOM, 2004, p.54).
Reintegration
(economic)
Refers to reinsertion of a migrant into the economic system of his/her
country of origin. The migrant shall be enabled to earn his⁄ her own living.
In developmental terms, economic reintegration also aims at using the
know-how which was acquired in the foreign country to promote the
economic and social development of the country of origin (IOM, 2004,
p.54).
Smuggling
The procurement, in order to obtain, directly or indirectly, a financial or
other material benefit, of the illegal entry of a person into a State Party of
which the person is not a national or a permanent resident (Art. 3(a), UN
Protocol Against the Smuggling of Migrants by Land, Sea and Air,
supplementing the United Nations Convention against Transnational
Organized Crime, 2000). Contrary to trafficking, smuggling does not have
or require an element of exploitation, coercion, or violation of human
rights (IOM, 2004, pp.60-61).
Assisted
migration
The movement of migrants accomplished with the assistance of a
government, governments or an international organization, as opposed
to spontaneous, unaided migration (IOM, 2004, p.7).
Undocumented
migrant
workers
Migrant workers or members of their families, who are not authorized to
enter, or stay in a State or to engage work in that State, but who are in an
irregular situation employment in that State (IOM, 2004, p.67).
Structure of the Research
This research is comprised of six chapters:
Chapter One discusses the research methodology and the approach taken to collect data,
as well as examines the ethical implications and limitations of the study.
Chapter Two describes the complexity of human trafficking and the emerging issue of
trafficking of men as well as the justification for the study, including its aims and
objectives.
Chapter Three provides the conceptual background of human-trafficking issues in
Cambodia, including the journey of migrants who leave Cambodia to seek employment
opportunities in Thailand and end up in exploitative labour conditions. The chapter also
explains the problems associated with the definition of trafficking given under the UN
Palermo Protocol.
Chapter Four explores the subject literature: reintegration of male trafficked victims – its
definition, successes and challenges, and draws attention to the gaps that exist.
Chapter Five presents the findings of the study and a thematic comparative analysis of
the data. It begins by introducing to a case study, and then goes on to state and discuss
the main findings of the study.
Chapter Six makes key recommendations for future work on the support to be provided
to male victims and exploited migrants. A concluding discussion summarises the main
findings of the study before suggesting possible areas of future research.
Chapter One: Research Design and Methodologies
Methodologies
While this research uses diverse quantitative and qualitative methods, most of its data is
qualitative. Primary (semi-structured interviews) and secondary (document review) data
are used in its qualitative methodology. The questions for the interviews were tested on
several male victims of trafficking and exploited male migrants (hereinafter called ‘the
victims and migrants’) in April 2014 when this research proposal was developed. Note
that little previous research or study has been conducted and scant information is
available whether quantitative or qualitative, on the trafficking of men and their
reintegration. While a large body of literature exists on the trafficking of women for
sexual exploitation, significantly, information on their successful reintegration is in
general, quite limited.
The present research also examines the Case Study of a local NGO in Cambodia that was
the first NGO to provide transit shelter to male trafficked victims in Cambodia. The Case
Study categorises and analyses the summary database of 1,137 deportees/migrants,
including the male victims who received support from the NGO between October 2008
and June 2014. The case study is original as it is for the first time that the data has been
categorised and analysed, the analysis being quantitative. Interviews with key staff of the
organisation were conducted to verify and clarify the data so as to minimize bias and
inaccuracies and to ensure objectivity in the analysis.
Another key aspect of this research is that by utilizing and analysing all the information
collected, it aims to identify potential Independent Variables – the Potential Factors
which would lead to successful reintegration as an outcome. So the study aims to
examine the intention of the male victims, whether they are less (or not at all) likely to remigrate if Reintegration Support is provided to them.
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Invincible Ignorance? Reintegration Quandary of Male Victims of Trafficking in Cambodia
The Potential Factors presently used as indicated in Box 1 are examined to find out if after
a certain period of receiving the support, the socio-economic conditions of the victims
have improved and/or whether they have obtained stable employment and thus have
declined to re-migrate or are no longer vulnerable to re-migration. If so these Potential
Factors can be considered as key indicators to the successful reintegration of the victims
into their communities.
Secondary Data Collection
The secondary source data was collected through a review of the literature on trafficking
and reintegration, as also a brief review of reintegration in the context of refugees and
ex-combatants. It was conducted prior to initiating the primary data collection (through
interviews) in order to gain familiarity with the issues of trafficking and reintegration in
the Cambodian context. The secondary source data also helped to understand the global
context, as well as the practices in other (different but related) groups such as refugees,
ex-combatants and trafficked persons. The focus on these different groups provides
further insights on the differences or similarities that exist in the reintegration of different
groups and contexts. The attempt was also to understand how reintegration was defined
and undertaken, to examine the kinds of support provided, to establish how success was
determined, understand the challenges in reintegration and derive lesson learnt from it.
The different viewpoints presented and discussed enabled the researcher to identify gaps
in the reintegration models and examine whether it would lead to the identification of a
successful reintegration model which could be applicable in the Cambodian context, a
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Invincible Ignorance? Reintegration Quandary of Male Victims of Trafficking in Cambodia
model that would ensure that Cambodian male victims are successfully reintegrated into
their community in such a manner as to reduce their vulnerability to further trafficking
and exploitation through re-migration.
Primary Data Collection
The key perspectives and arguments presented in the literature review were verified with
nine key informants, all highly knowledgeable experts in the field of trafficking and
reintegration in Cambodia. The verification was to ensure that the gaps identified and
research question set were suitable to the local context. It was also a process for
gathering further information on the challenges in reintegration and to find out if there
was a successful reintegration model which could be adopted to the Cambodian context.
This was carried out through semi-structured interviews1: a primary source of data
collection. In addition to their extensive knowledge, skills and experiences, the key
informants were selected based on their willingness to participate and provide program
information. They are currently working in anti-trafficking organisations which have and
are doing pioneering work on trafficking of men in Cambodia. The contacts with key
informants were made easier and convenient as the researcher has known them
personally and professionally during her former employment in Cambodia.
As government plays an important role in anti-trafficking work and in victim protection, a
key informant from government was also contacted. The researcher was privileged to
have interviewed the Secretary of State in the Ministry of Interior, Royal Government of
Cambodia, who is concurrently the Chairperson of the General Secretariat of the National
Committee to Combat Trafficking in Persons (NCCT), an Inter-Ministerial Coordinating
Body of 11 Ministries involved in anti-trafficking work in Cambodia. The interview focused
on the work of the General Secretariat, and its role as a coordinating body in the
reintegration process. It also focussed on government policy on reintegration of men if
any, and the future strategies being considered to prevent and protect Cambodian
migrants from exploitation and trafficking.
1
Refer to Appendix 2: Questions Guidelines for Key Informants
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Invincible Ignorance? Reintegration Quandary of Male Victims of Trafficking in Cambodia
The researcher further conducted semi-structured interviews2 with seven male returnees
(plus one family member of a male returnee), that included both male victims and
migrants who had been deported back to Cambodia by Thai authorities for illegal entry
into Thailand. Their Victim Identifications had not conducted either by the Thai or the
Cambodian enforcement officials. Reaching out to these victims was facilitated by the
researcher’s former organisation.
2
Refer to Appendix 3: Questions Guidelines for Male Victims and Exploited Migrants
4
Invincible Ignorance? Reintegration Quandary of Male Victims of Trafficking in Cambodia
Selection Criteria
The criteria for selection of the seven male returnees were based on two factors. First,
deportees who arrived at the transit shelter of the organisation in the month of JulyAugust 2014. Second, the researcher made use of the organisation’s follow-up schedule
to monitor the progress of their reintegrated clients for the months of July-August 2014.
The researcher was informed that seven on-site follow-ups would be conducted in the
selected months. The organisation also used telephone follow-ups. Utilizing this service,
the researcher requested permission of the organisation to administer a short
questionnaire to an additional 20 male victims and migrants. This short questionnaire
focused mainly on whether (and if so why) they would re-migrate to Thailand; and if they
do, whether that decision would change if there were employment opportunities or
vocational skills training provided to them in Cambodia.
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Invincible Ignorance? Reintegration Quandary of Male Victims of Trafficking in Cambodia
As the target group was living in different provinces, they were chosen randomly by the
organisation, and that helped to minimise the bias in the selection process. The request
for permissions to interview them was then extended to them, including a request for
permission to access their case profiles. They were clearly informed that their
participation in the interview was purely voluntary and that their refusal to answer would
not affect them in any way in relation to their support, if any, from the organisation. The
purpose of the study was also explained to them clearly and they were informed of the
confidentiality of the interviews. Adhering to the organizations privacy and confidentiality
policy, the researcher followed the policy of not using any voice recording device during
the interviews. The researcher had been informed that if requested, generally the victims
would have given their consent to voice recording because culturally they would be
reluctant to refuse any such request; however experience indicated that they would be
more open to talk if they were informed that no voice recording was being used.
Data Analysis
The interviews with the victims and migrants focused on their experiences of migration
and trafficking and reintegration. Different aspects of their reintegration such as how they
were reintegrated and their experiences, their understanding of reintegration, the level of
acceptance by their families and community, their perception towards re-migration et al
was focussed upon. The responses were analysed qualitatively.
The data collected was recorded following the manner of the semi-structured interviews’
questions and in a descriptive summary format. The information collected from key
informants was used to verify the arguments presented in the literature review, as well as
to provide further general insights on reintegration in the Cambodian context. It was also
used to ensure that gaps identified and research questions framed were appropriate and
relevant to the country context.
The data collected from interviews were coded and grouped under similar issues or
topics. Quotes were used as a means to represent the voices to the victims and migrants
who often would not be able to speak for themselves. The findings of the study were
prepared in a descriptive and analytical manner.
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Invincible Ignorance? Reintegration Quandary of Male Victims of Trafficking in Cambodia
Ethical Considerations
The researcher adheres to all ethical considerations. The Oxford Brookes staff confirmed
ethical approval3 before any interviews were conducted. Moreover, a series of
documents relating to trafficking issues and the ten guiding principles of the World Health
Organisation’s (WHO, 2003) ethical conduct in interviewing trafficked victims were taken
into account in preparing the questions for the interviews. It is pertinent also to point out
that the researcher having worked with trafficking victims previously is quite experienced
in the area of human-trafficking, particularly on ethical issues and considerations. This
enabled the necessary rapport to be established with the different interviewees and
helped to obtain the sometimes sensitive information from the victims and migrants. The
researcher’s knowledge of Khmer culture and language also surmounted what would
otherwise have been fairly difficult cultural and language barriers.
It may be noted that there were certain challenges in getting information from male
victims and migrants as they would often be reluctant to talk about their past life
experiences. The researcher’s previous experience helped to maintain high ethical
standards in interviews while overcoming such challenges. Prior to any interview, the
nature of the research, the confidentiality of their responses, and other confidentiality
considerations was clearly explained to the interviewees and their verbal consent were
sought. The location of the interview was important to maintain privacy and comfort in
responding to questions. Thus the researcher always asked the interviewees to find a
location that they felt safe and comfortable to talk through the telephone interviews.
Toward the end of the interviews, the interviewees’ responses were summarized and
explained to them and clarified with them. They were asked whether they would like to
make any changes or amend any of the parts. They were reassured of the confidentiality
of the interview. They were also told that should there be a need for further information,
a request for follow-up interviews would be sought.
3
Refer to Appendix 1: Oxford’s Brookes’s Ethical Approval
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Invincible Ignorance? Reintegration Quandary of Male Victims of Trafficking in Cambodia
Limitations
Firstly, an important limitation of this research is that little or no information is available
on the reintegration of male victims. As trafficking of men is relatively a new trend in this
region, there are scant researches, studies or information on them, particularly on the
Reintegration Support required to help them to get back to a decent life once they return
to their community. Some scarce information exists however on Reintegration Support
which is available for such returning victims. This is known to be mainly in the form of a
travelling allowance to return home and does not at all cover what reintegration is
supposed to encompass. Additionally, current information available on Reintegration
Support for women and children has sometimes been referred to in this research, always
bearing in mind however, that the needs of men and women could be and often are
different.
Secondly, the researcher is dealing with men who due to social and cultural taboo do not
want to admit either that they were the victims or that they were cheated. Therefore,
there is a possibility that their responses would not be fully accurate representations of
what had actually happened. Also it is quite possible that they would not reveal certain
information in order to preserve their identity and dignity and what they would consider
to be demeaning to their male identity and ego.
Thirdly, this research studies the circumstance of trafficked or exploited men post
reintegration. This means that the research is being conducted when or after they have
returned home. Therefore, this research only provides a holistic picture of the postreintegration situation of the victims and migrants, but not so much on the preintegration period or during reintegration.
Fourthly, this research examines and analyses the personal experiences of only seven
victims and migrants and 20 additional victims and migrants to whom a short
questionnaire was administered. Therefore, the sample being clearly small, it is not in the
nature of this research nor does it lay claim to represent the whole population of the
male victims and migrants.
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Invincible Ignorance? Reintegration Quandary of Male Victims of Trafficking in Cambodia
Finally, the circumstance that enabled the researcher to conduct interviews through
Skype and/or telephone excluded the opportunity for physical proximity, eye contact and
direct observations with the interviewees, a process which could have potentially added
greater value to this research.
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Invincible Ignorance? Reintegration Quandary of Male Victims of Trafficking in Cambodia
Chapter Two: Introduction
Complexity of Human-trafficking
Human-trafficking is a transnational issue, affecting countries of every size and economic
status. According to UNODC (2006), 161 countries are impacted by human-trafficking of
which 127 are countries of origin, 98 transit countries and 137 destination countries. It is
the second largest and fastest growing criminal enterprise in the world today (Spindler,
2010) with annual global profits assessed to be about $31.6 billion, made from the
exploitation of trafficked victims (CMSNY, 2012 and Besler, 2005).
Because of its complexity, determining the real magnitude of human-trafficking – a term
that falls under the umbrella of modern day slavery – is a challenge. Most statistical data
on the figure of human-trafficking are at best rough estimates (Salt, 2000), and only a few
large organisations have attempted to estimate its extent. A recent 2013 key findings
report by Walk Free Foundation (2013) indicates that currently 29.8 million people may
be in modern slavery globally. Moreover, ILO (2012) estimates that around the world
there are at least 20.9 million forced labour victims, many if not most of whom would
also have been victims of human-trafficking, especially labour-trafficking. This estimate
corresponds to the statement made by the [former] US Secretary of State Hillary Rodham
Clinton (Babb, 2011) that ‘anywhere from 12 [million] to 27 million people are currently
held in forced labour, bonded labour, or forced prostitution.’
10
Invincible Ignorance? Reintegration Quandary of Male Victims of Trafficking in Cambodia
Trafficking of Men – An Emerging Issue
While the majority of these victims are women and children, there is a marked and
growing public recognition of the issue of trafficking of men. A spokesperson from the
U.S. Department of Health and Human Services confirmed that 76% of human-trafficking
victims certified in 2008 were victims of labour-trafficking, and the high proportion of the
male victims was due to an increase of labour-trafficking cases (Carroll, 2009). Likewise,
IOM (2012) report that data collected from 89 IOM missions in 91 countries from 2008 to
2011 indicates an increase of 43% of labour-trafficking cases. There is therefore, an
increased recognition of the issue of male victims of labour-trafficking globally. As Hyland
(2001, p.31) asserts: ‘a victim can be a man, woman, or child’, as trafficking is no longer
just about sexual exploitation but also forced labour in a wide range of contexts.
Nonetheless, because it is a recent development, there is a dearth of information on
trafficking of men and only a few organizations are working on the issue. Much literature,
research, reports, media and work of governments and civil society organizations tends to
focus mostly on sexual trafficking and exploitation of women and children, and
unfortunately little on the trafficking of men.
Notwithstanding, the recent emergence of this hidden issue into public gaze, has caught
the attention of policy makers and practitioners alike. In the case of Cambodia, the Royal
Government of Cambodia has proclaimed that men, women and children are the victims
of human-trafficking for labour and sexual exploitation. As victims, men are also eligible
to support and protection. However, it appears to be that many victims and migrants are
treated rather more like criminals than victims, and as highlighted by Anti-Slavery,
trafficked persons continue to be treated as criminals rather than the victims of a grave
crime (Annison, 2013), depriving them from any support or protection.
For the few who receive support, the support is mainly in the form of a travelling
allowance to return home or one-off humanitarian support, as part of their Reintegration
Support package. In the case of Cambodia, there is a larger number of returned migrants
(including illegal and smuggled migrants; exploited and trafficked victims/migrants) who
are deported back to Cambodia by Thailand who are unable to get any Reintegration
Support at all. This illuminates the real lack of Reintegration Support provided to men.
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Invincible Ignorance? Reintegration Quandary of Male Victims of Trafficking in Cambodia
Without adequate support, men are likely to re-migrate and thus increase their
susceptibility to exploitation and trafficking. This research is particularly interested in the
condition of the victims and migrants after they reintegrate back into their community.
Aim and Research Question
This research aims to gain a better understanding of whether there is a Reintegration
Support package or model which is suitable to the needs of male victims and exploited
migrants that would help them to successfully reintegrate into their community, without
being further vulnerable to re-migration in which the prospect of re-trafficking and reexploitation would be high. The main research question guiding this research is thus:
Would a Reintegration Support package enable male Cambodian victims of trafficking to
successfully reintegrate back into their communities and prevent their further trafficking
and exploitative re-migration?
Figure 2: Cycle of Migration and Exploitation?
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Invincible Ignorance? Reintegration Quandary of Male Victims of Trafficking in Cambodia
Chapter Three: Background
Human-trafficking in the Cambodian Context
Like the rest of the world, Cambodia is not immune to human-trafficking. In fact,
Cambodia is a source, transit and destination country for men, women and children of
human-trafficking for both sexual and labour exploitation. In the most recent (2014) U.S
State Department’s Trafficking in Persons Report, which grades 188 countries according
to how well human-trafficking is combated and prevented, Cambodia is ranked in the
same Tier 2 Watch List whereas Thailand has dropped from Tier 2 Watch List to Tier 3;
Table 3 explains the TIER’s Meaning, and Figure 3 shows TIER Ranking between Cambodia
and Thailand from 2007 to 2014 (U.S. DOS, 2014).
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Invincible Ignorance? Reintegration Quandary of Male Victims of Trafficking in Cambodia
In addition, Cambodia was listed in the top 10 sending countries, while Thailand was in
the top 10 destination countries for human-trafficking as illustrated in Figure 4 (IOM,
2012). This emphasises the real magnitude of trafficking and underlines the grave concern
that should forthwith be paid to it. It also underlines unfortunately the lack of victim
protection and victim assistance being provided in the two neighbouring countries. More
importantly it is perhaps a strong pointer to the lack of the co-operation between the two
countries, at least at the operating level amongst the agencies that have been tasked with
ending human-trafficking.
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Invincible Ignorance? Reintegration Quandary of Male Victims of Trafficking in Cambodia
Apart from migration to Thailand and domestic migration, Cambodians migrate within the
region (mainly to Malaysia), for better employment opportunities and are found in the
fishing, construction, and agricultural sectors, and many of these victims fall into the trap
of debt bondage, domestic servitude, sex trafficking, labour exploitation etc. (U.S. DOS,
2014; 2013 & 2012). The fishing sector, being part of the traditional forms of agriculture,
provides opportunity for employment faster than other sectors (FAO, 2010).
The victims are then often identified and repatriated back from Thailand, Malaysia and
other countries to Cambodia, as illustrated in Figure 5.
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Invincible Ignorance? Reintegration Quandary of Male Victims of Trafficking in Cambodia
Statistical Data on Cambodian Migrants in Thailand
Hodal (2014) reports that based on official Thai statistics more than two million legal
migrant labourers work in Thailand, the vast majority of whom are Burmese, Cambodian
and Lao. There are no official figures of those who work illegally in Thailand. However a
recent report in The Guardian points out that it is estimated that nearly 500,000 people
are currently enslaved within Thailand’s borders (Hodal, Kelly, & Lawrence, 2014). With
regard to Cambodians, some activists claim that there are at least 200,000 illegal
Cambodian migrants working in Thailand (Hodal, 2014). This figure is in line with the
number reported by IOM of about 246,000 Cambodian migrants (a majority
undocumented) who have fled back to Cambodia not long after the recent coup in
Bangkok [on May 22, 2014], in fear of arrest and deportation by Thailand’s ruling military
junta because of their illegal migrant status (Finch, 2014). Furthermore, the Thai
government estimates that 90% of up to 300,000 people working in the country’s fishing
industry are migrants who are susceptible to being deceived, sold and trafficked to sea
(Hodal et al., 2014).
The Cambodian Migrants in Thai Fishing Boats
Many Cambodian men are working in the fishing sector in Thailand – a sector which is
highly unregulated and notorious for its complexity, and with many impediments in
controlling and monitoring it. Any attempt to explore the situation of the Cambodian
migrant workers (mainly undocumented) in this sector is challenging. Cambodian men
who were recruited to work on the fishing vessels reported being deceived by Thai boat
owners about the length of service and their pay while some reported brutal abuses by
their Thai boat captains and being forced to stay on the boats for years together (U.S.
DOS, 2014). Similar findings were recently reported by The Guardian after a six-month
investigation into the fishing sector in Thailand. The report points out the horrific
conditions that the victims encountered, including: ‘20-hour shifts, regular beatings,
torture and execution-style killings. Some were at sea for years; some were regularly
offered methamphetamines to keep them going. Some had seen fellow slaves murdered in
front of them’ (Hodal et al., 2014, n.p).
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Invincible Ignorance? Reintegration Quandary of Male Victims of Trafficking in Cambodia
A statement by one of the victims interviewed by International Organisation for Migration
(IOM) confirmed the findings. ‘Fishermen who do not perform according to the
expectations of the boat captain may face severe beatings or other forms of physical
maltreatment, denial of medical care and, in the worst cases, maiming or killing’ (IOM,
2011, p.7). Moreover, 59% of male trafficking victims reported witnessing a killing by the
boat captain (UNIAP, 2009). One witness to the murder of a boat crew member, who was
killed for defecating over the side of the boat, recalls the incident:
The skipper came down, looked around, picked up a pipe then he hit him only one
time. We saw he was hit. But didn’t see exactly where he’d been hit. His body fell
directly into the water. After that whenever it was busy, everybody was terrified to shit
or pee. Some people did it in their pants while they were working (Browne, 2009).
Thus clearly, the severity of the abuse and exploitation that the male victims and migrants
encounter is extreme.
Journey of Cambodian Migrants Prior to Deportation to Cambodia
According to the latest Cambodian National Report on Human-trafficking, 80,610
Cambodian men, women and children were deported back to Cambodia in 2013 by the
Thai authorities for illegally entering Thailand and about 70% of them are men who were
found trapped and/or working in Thai fishing vessels, and in the construction and
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Invincible Ignorance? Reintegration Quandary of Male Victims of Trafficking in Cambodia
plantation sectors (NCS, S.T.S.L.S, 2014)4. However, the figure appears to be decreasing,
as approximately 100,000 people were deported yearly in the earlier years (NCS, S.T.S.L.S,
2013 & 2012). The deportees were arrested and imprisoned, sometimes for months, prior
to their deportation. The NCS, S.T.S.L.S (2014) reports that 2,981 of the 80,610 deportees
were jailed for over a month before being deported back to Cambodia. Moreover, a study
conducted by UNIAP (2010) indicates that of those Cambodian migrants who were
deported back to Cambodia from Thailand, at least 23% were trafficked persons. Among
those, about 40% were considered as worst cases, in which deportees were deceived into
forced labour conditions, without freedom of movement and with no pay at all (UNIAP,
2010). In addition, the majority of the illegal migrants are found to be working on fishing
vessels (UNIAP, 2010).
Cambodian men are misled by brokers and recruiters, forced to pay high recruitment fees
through which many get into debt bondage, and are enslaved and exploited while being
forced to work on Thai fishing boats. They should be construed as victims of trafficking,
but there does not exist any system to provide support and protection to them.
Moreover, the abuse and exploitation encountered by the victims should be redressed by
support and protection when they are detained by the Thai authorities and also when
they are back in Cambodia. However, as victim identification screening is never properly
conducted either in Thailand or Cambodia, the right to assistance and protection that the
victims of human-trafficking are entitled to, are not met.
The above discussion would thus indicate that there is a scarcity of focus on trafficking of
men. This may be perhaps because of a dearth of information on the issue. The issue has
only recently been recognised and interventions toward supporting the victims and
migrants demand urgent attention.
To do so it would be first necessary to understand what human-trafficking is.
4
The NCS, S.T.S.L.S (the Secretariat of the National Committee to Lead the Suppression of Human
Trafficking, Smuggling, Labour Exploitation and Sexual Exploitation of Women and Children) has recently
promoted to be the General Secretariat of the National Committee to Combat Trafficking in Persons (NCCT)
under the Royal Degree on 256 June 2014.
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Invincible Ignorance? Reintegration Quandary of Male Victims of Trafficking in Cambodia
The UN Palermo Protocol – The Definition of Trafficking
Article 3 (a) of the UN Protocol to Prevent, Suppress and Punish Trafficking in Persons,
Especially Women and Children (Known as the ‘Palermo Protocol’) defines trafficking as:
Trafficking in persons shall mean the recruitment, transportation, transfer, harbouring or
receipt of persons, by means of the threat or use of force or other forms of coercion, of
abduction, of fraud, of deception, of the abuse of power or of a position of vulnerability or
of the giving or receiving of payments or benefits to achieve the consent of a person
having control over another person, for the purpose of exploitation. Exploitation shall
include, at a minimum, the exploitation of the prostitution of others or other forms of
sexual exploitation, forced labour or services, slavery or practices similar to slavery,
servitude or the removal of organs;(UNODC, 2004, p.42)
The definition is problematic in a number of ways.
First, even if the Protocol is the first international instrument of its kind since the 1949
Convention for the Suppression of the Traffic in Persons and Exploitation of the
Prostitution of Others (Abramson, 2003) this definition is simply a supplement to the UN
Convention Against Transnational Organised Crime. In fact, Carver (2012) argues that
rights of the victims are weakly addressed as this Protocol is more about the detection
and punishment of trafficking as a crime.
Second, Surtees (2008) argues that this definition focuses on women and forced
prostitution, by excluding labour-trafficking and voluntary migration, and thus many laws
and interventions have been designed to reflect its orientation towards sex trafficking.
Third, notwithstanding the fact that the terms used in the definition are gender neutral
and is applicable to everyone, yet clearly women and children are mainly at the heart of
debates surrounding this Protocol because women were often described as ‘a major
element in the literature’ on trafficking and smuggling (Salt, 2000, p.33). The gender bias
that often seem to conclude that women are the only victims, prompt law enforcement
officials to overlook the possibilities that men could also be trafficked, thus excluding the
opportunity for men to be identified, assisted and protected.
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Invincible Ignorance? Reintegration Quandary of Male Victims of Trafficking in Cambodia
Finally, Ausserer (2008) argues that the definition appears to indicate that the
exploitation only occurs at the end of the migratory process, overlooking the possibilities
that people could be exploited during the process.
The Question of Boundaries and State Sovereignty
The Protocol establishes human-trafficking as an issue of boundaries and state
sovereignty, ‘rather than one of human rights, in spite of human rights content of the
protocol itself’ (Howard & Lalani, 2008, p.9). This results in the responses of States which
focus mainly on criminal prosecution and tighter border controls. This is problematic for a
number of reasons:
Firstly, such measures as tighter border controls could divert undocumented/irregular
migrants into more dangerous and/or hidden migratory routes (Howard & Lalani, 2008).
Antoine Pécoud and Paul de Guchteneire argued as cited in (Ausserer, 2008, p.99) that
even sophisticated border-controls could not stop potential migrants, but further increase
their risks, their vulnerability to be exploited and trafficked.
Secondly, although trafficked victims are recognised by law as ‘victims’, the victims
appear to receive assistance only if they cooperated with law enforcement officials to
testify against perpetrators. Otherwise they are often treated as illegal migrants to be
deported, and sometimes imprisoned (Jones, 2010). An illustration: in Malaysia, illegal
migrants can be sentenced up to US$3,300 fine and/or up to five years imprisonment;
and a mandatory whipping of up to six strokes of the ‘Rotan’ (IOM, 2009).
The issue of victim’s cooperation is also often challenging because in the case of male
victims, the victims are usually reluctant to testify, and many victims cannot identify their
employers, recruiters/traffickers as they are often transferred from one fishing boat to
another. Many victims in Cambodia also refuse to testify as the legal proceeding could be
time-consuming and do not trust in the judicial system due to corruption and the culture
of impunity.
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Invincible Ignorance? Reintegration Quandary of Male Victims of Trafficking in Cambodia
Finally, it is common to find that the implementation of the existing international and
national mechanisms for the protection of the human rights of all migrants and trafficking
victims is weak in most countries (Gramegna, 2008). Consequently, trafficked victims lose
opportunities to be assisted, protected and repatriated.
With the failure to include labour-trafficking and State’s mandatory obligation to
intervene for victim protection in the Palermo Protocol, the conditions of male victims are
exacerbated with meagre anti-trafficking interventions targeting them. In the rare
instances that assistance exists, it is not designed in ways that respond to their needs
(Surtees, 2008).
The Link between Victim Status and Human Rights Protection
Many male victims are reluctant to be identified as ‘victims’, as the term could imply
powerlessness and weakness (Surtees, 2008). Surtees further argues that the term
‘victim’ is however significant in human rights and protection, in particular to identify that
a crime has been committed against them. In the field experience of the researcher, it is
found that some argue that NGOs should not further traumatise trafficked men by
labelling them victims if they did not desire to be identified as victims. Although the
argument appears to be valid, without revealing their victimised status, the victims could
lose the opportunity for protection and increase the chances of the perpetrators
continuing to exploit others.
From the above discussion it is clear that although there is a growing recognition that
men can also be victims of human-trafficking, the exclusion of labour-trafficking and/or
voluntary migration in the Palermo Protocol, the failure of States to provide victim
protection for men, and the meagre anti-trafficking interventions tailored to men’s needs,
continue to create challenges for male victims to be identified, assisted and protected in a
timely manner.
The Absence of Reintegration Support in the Palermo Protocol
Another significant issue which is the foundation of this research is that in the Palermo
Protocol the issue of Reintegration Support or service provision upon repatriation to
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Invincible Ignorance? Reintegration Quandary of Male Victims of Trafficking in Cambodia
ensure that victims are able to assimilate into society is not mentioned (Hyland, 2001).
Hyland further asserts that only the cooperation between State Parties to guarantee safe
repatriation of victims to their countries of origin is referred to in the Protocol, and ‘the
victims are, in effect, then delivered back into the same conditions from which they were
trafficked and are at risk of revictimization’ (Hyland, 2001, p.38).
However it is clear that reintegration is crucial to ensure that victims are successfully
assimilated back into society after their horrendous experiences of being trafficked and
exploited. It is imperative therefore to examine all facets of the issue of reintegration, its
success and challenges and particularly examines whether reintegration back home is a
necessity, and how that could help the victims and migrants.
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Invincible Ignorance? Reintegration Quandary of Male Victims of Trafficking in Cambodia
Chapter Four: Literature Review
To begin with, it is imperative to examine how reintegration and Reintegration Support
are perceived in current literature.
The Definition of Reintegration
Reintegration is the last stage of the ‘3R’ Rescue-Rehabilitation-Reintegration package
and the key victim protection effort of the ‘4Ps’ Paradigm: Prevention-ProtectionProsecution-Partnership (U.S. DOS, 2011).
Lisborg (2009) and Derks (1998) indicate that returning migrants who have been deported
back to Cambodia (hereinafter called ‘reintegrants’) could either be reintegrated back
home, or to a new place, based on their needs, interests, desires and skills. To denote the
option that reintegrants can choose existing or new places to settle their life, some have
referred the term reintegration as ‘re/integration’ (Surtees, 2013 & 2008a; UNIAP, World
Vision & Nexus Institute, 2012; Miles et al., 2012). In addition, Tsai (2013) highlights that
most of the existing reintegrating programmes in Southeast Asia focused on supporting
reintegrants to return home. Moreover, reintegration can mean different things to
different people/organisations in different contexts, and it is often used substitutable
with terms like ‘assistance’ and ‘rehabilitation’ (Brunovskis & Surtees 2012, p.13). For the
purpose of this research, the term Reintegration is used, as it intends to examine the
reintegration of male victims and migrants back to their community.
To date, there is no universally accepted definition of the term ‘reintegration’ (The Asia
Foundation, 2005, p.20). IOM – a major player in the field of reintegration, defines
reintegration as the ‘re-inclusion or re-incorporation of a person into a group or a process,
e.g. of a migrant into the society of his or her country of origin;….’ and the reintegration
process is completed when the needs for the re-adoption into the culture, and the
insertion of a reintegrated person into the economic system and the social structure are
met. Therefore reintegration is more than just the process of moving people from one
place to another, but preferably about moving them into their country of origin and
23
Invincible Ignorance? Reintegration Quandary of Male Victims of Trafficking in Cambodia
ensuring that they are able to live their lives through established personal networks and
civil society structures (IOM, 2004).
Derks (1998) further claims that reintegration is more than just a geographic movement
of people back home: ‘To integrate means to unify, or to put or to incorporate (parts)
together in a whole; re-integration assumes that this unification or incorporation has to
be renewed.’ Derks (1998) examined how children and women victims reintegrated back
to their home and argues that not only are the women and children to be unified with the
families, but also they would have to reunify with their friends, neighbours and other
community members. Although Derks’s study is limited to Cambodian women and
children, nevertheless it provides a valuable insight into how victims are integrated and
might well be applicable to men. The argument emphasises the importance of both the
family and social environment that the victims are reintegrated to.
Derks’s argument is in line with the interpretation of reintegration in the International
Journal of Refugee Law (2011) which defines reintegration as ‘the process of inclusion and
rebuilding relationships with a community in the country of origin at four levels: physical,
socio-economic, socio-political, and cultural.’ This definition emphasises that in order for
people to be reintegrated successfully and be able to resume normal life in their
community, not only are family and social environment important, but culture and
economic factors are also vital.
This argument is stressed by UNICEF (2007, pp.2-3) in the context of ex-combatants and
child soldiers, which state that reintegration is:
a process by which children transition into civil society and enter meaningful roles
and identities as civilians who are accepted by their families and communities…..,
which is achieved when the political, legal, economic and social conditions needed
for children to maintain life, livelihood and dignity have been secured.
Even though this process of reintegration focuses on child soldiers, particularly in
transforming a child’s life from a solider to a civilian, the reintegration process as a whole
reinforces the important role that in addition to family and society, political and legal
environment have a crucial role in any successful reintegration.
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Invincible Ignorance? Reintegration Quandary of Male Victims of Trafficking in Cambodia
Reintegration and Social Inclusion
There is wide consensus that reintegration is a process that is long term, costly, complex
and influenced by a series of personal factors as well as a range of social, economical and
cultural factors (Surtees, 2013; Jayagupta, 2012; Cody, et al., 2011; Derks, 1998). Meshi,
Picari & Pinderi (2009) argue that a careful assessment of the individual situation and
then a good planning of the future steps of reintegration are needed for a good
reintegration; and the interventions can only be completed when the reintegrants are
empowered and able to live an independent life.
There are those who would argue that the term ‘reintegration’ is limited and instead
‘social inclusion’ should be used, as it suggests a process approach and also greater
mutuality and reciprocal responsibility. Reimer et al. (2007, p.16) argue that both
terms/definitions of reintegration are quite limited; so perhaps it would be desirable to
use ‘social inclusion’, ‘which provides a holistic perspective and a sense of mutuality, as
well as implying a process.’ The term has been promoted by Comitato, a member
organization of the Global Alliance Against Traffic in Women (GAATW) from Italy, which
explains it as:
….. the act of putting one thing into another; to put in as part of a set, group or
category. It also implies a sense of fitting in, of belonging and being involved. The
process of social inclusion can never be passive or one-way. It is an interaction
between the person and her context (International Journal of Refugee Law, 2011,
cited in Reimer et al., 2007, p.16).
While literature does not appear to either support or reject this argument of ‘social
inclusion’ as a term to replace reintegration, there is evidence that the term reintegration
has been widely used in the context of human-trafficking, migration, refugee and excombatant. The brief discussion about the interpretation of the meaning of reintegration
above confirms this, and shows how reintegration is interpreted in different contexts and
the similarities or differences between them.
Reintegration rather than social inclusion is thus the preferred term, as it has been widely
used. The process of reintegration is long-term, complex and costly. It is the process of
25
Invincible Ignorance? Reintegration Quandary of Male Victims of Trafficking in Cambodia
recovery and the economic, political, social and cultural inclusion of reintegrants into
society. Therefore, it is vital to examine how to measure the success of this process.
Determining Potential Factors for a Successful Reintegration
How is the ‘success’ of reintegration to be determined? What are the possible factors of a
successful reintegration? And what is the scope and objective of reintegration at the
individual and societal levels? These questions have to be seriously examined while
considering any paradigm of reintegration.
Jennings (2008) argues that it is often hard to measure and assess reintegration as
technical approaches are not appropriate and easily quantifiable benchmarks are not
available. Bogdanovski (2009) further points out that defined benchmarks that a person
needs to fulfil in order to be considered reintegrated do not exist. In addition, UNIAP et al,
(2012) and Reimer et al. (2007) emphasise that there is generally a lack of clarity and
there is still confusion over what ‘successful’ reintegration actually is, as different people
could perceive the ‘success’ differently. Reimer et al. (2007) argue that ‘success’ for an
NGO may mean a beneficiary/client returning back home to the family, whereas ‘success’
for community members may only be achieved when a beneficiary/client has come home
with skills and a job to support the family.
Employment is one of the potential factors leading to a successful reintegration
(Jayagupta, 2012). Meshi et al. (2009) emphasize that the psycho-social support and the
establishment of healthy social and personal relationships and financial sustainability of
the programs that assist the reintegration process are crucially important for the success
of reintegration. Above all, Brunovskis & Surtees (2012) and Surtees (2008a) argue that
empowerment of reintegrants is the fundamental aspect of a successful reintegration,
both in terms of the development of reintegrants’ personal skills towards an independent
life and their active participation in each of the steps of reintegration.
The challenge here then is to identify the steps that lead to reintegration. Reimer et al.
(2007) examine the steps that lead to reintegration in the Cambodian context and point
out that reintegration is often perceived to be made up of three stages: pre-reintegration,
26
Invincible Ignorance? Reintegration Quandary of Male Victims of Trafficking in Cambodia
reintegration, and post-reintegration. They explain that these stages include numerous
steps from the initial step of pre-reintegration and reunification with the family (such as
family tracing and assessments) and continue right up to follow-up visits once the
individual has left the care of a service provider. Organizations working on reintegration
in Cambodia have often tried to determine the extent of reintegration and decide when
follow-up visits are to be ended. Reimer et al. (2007) have also raised the possibility that
every individual tends to perceive the success of reintegration differently, making both
the scope and indicators of a successful reintegration hard to define.
Since different individuals have differing needs, coping strategies and recovery may vary
depending on the experiences and ordeal they have encountered while being trafficked
or exploited. Derks (1998, p.14) contends that when the reintegrants have ‘a place –
physically, emotionally and economically – in which risk factors for repeated trafficking
are sufficiently under control’, that is when there is the likelihood of successful
reintegration.
It is then clear that there is a set of activities and steps in reintegration whereby
reintegrants can feel that their needs have been responded to, and that they have been
empowered and equipped with relevant skills which can enable them to continue
pursuing their life.
Key Challenges in Successful Reintegration
While employment has been set as one of the potential factors leading to a successful
reintegration, Jayagupta (2012) argues that generally training and skills development are
a major hindrance to successful reintegration as reintegrants often have low levels of
education. This leads to difficulties in their understanding the vocational skill training
offered and some resist participating in these trainings. Often, the skill training available
also poses a challenge for reintegrants.
Clark (1995, p.3) argues that from the experience of USAID:
27
Invincible Ignorance? Reintegration Quandary of Male Victims of Trafficking in Cambodia
Training is not a solution to unemployment; rather, it is a vehicle for the
unemployed to obtain skills needed in the market. Training programs work best
when designed and implemented by local organizations that are most aware of
the needs in the local economy and therefore less likely to train people for jobs
that do not exist.
However, on many occasions NGOs have to face the dilemma that training in skills that
can generate income in the reintegrants’ community are not sought by them, and
reintegrants are inclined to request training in skills that are less likely to help them to
generate income in their community.
Reimer et al. (2007) assert that a simple blueprint for reintegration does not exist, despite
the ability to identify patterns of need and the ability to prepare for this need. The
individual experiences of trafficking are diverse, necessitating individual needs to be
addressed by support services. Service providers assisting with the reintegration of
trafficking survivors continue to face the challenge of individualizing services within a
holistic approach (Reimer et al., 2007).
Reintegration needs to be addressed both at individual and societal levels, and should
ideally lead to the sustainable recovery of the trafficked person and his inclusion into
society at four levels: cultural, political, economical and social. The steps and the
processes for a successful reintegration and the indicators for deciding if reintegration has
been a success is further complicated as individual needs and interests are varied.
The question then is whether there is a theoretical model for successful reintegration?
The Role of Immediate Society in Reintegration - The Family, Neighbours
and Villagers
Victims of trafficking face a twofold dilemma during reintegration: while attempting to
recover from the horrendous experience of trafficking, they have to face a new set of
challenges when reintegrating back home that include the family, the neighbours and
villagers.
28
Invincible Ignorance? Reintegration Quandary of Male Victims of Trafficking in Cambodia
It is seen in most literature that the overall needs and situations of trafficked persons
have been the centre of attention (Bjerkan, 2005; Brunovskis & Surtees, 2008 & 2007;
Surtees, 2007; Derks, 1998). Brunovskis & Surtees (2013 & 2012) argue that individual
victims, their background, trafficking experiences and post-trafficking lives have received
much attention and are found in most literature on trafficked persons. However, there is
not much focus on families of the reintegrants except in a small body of research on
reintegration. They stress that ‘the family becomes invisible or is reduced to ‘a factor’ in a
general picture of individual vulnerability and a potentially complicating factor in
reintegration.’ While it is undeniable that human-trafficking mainly affects the victims,
family members can also be affected by the trafficking of members of their family.
Surtees argues that family environment is important in successful reintegration, and thus
it must be taken into account during reintegration (Meshi et al., 2009). D&E (2006, p.36,
cited in Meshi et al. 2009, p.44) emphasizes that the level of support received from the
family is significant and is the most contributing influential factor in reintegration; and a
peaceful family is more likely to add to a successful reintegration than one with conflicts.
Brunovskis & Surtees (2012) acknowledge that while the family could play a vital role in
successful reintegration, they could also be an impediment in recovery if the relationship
between family members is difficult.
Brunovskis & Surtees (2012, p.8) claim that ‘different expectations’ between the family
and the victim appear to be the source of conflict between them. Often family members
expect the victims to come home with earnings to support the family as well as to pay off
any debt existing before migration. Conflicts arise when that expectation is not fulfilled. It
is often found that when the interpersonal relationship within a family is difficult,
additional strain tends to be created through financial issues and stigmatisation of victims
(Brunovskis & Surtees, 2012).
Understanding the needs of victims and supporting their recovery is important in
reintegration. At the same time, equal attention should be paid to the victims’ social
environment - family, neighbour, and villager - in order to ensure successful reintegration
of victims into their community. A more holistic perspective of the relationship of family,
29
Invincible Ignorance? Reintegration Quandary of Male Victims of Trafficking in Cambodia
neighbours and villagers is crucial in easing the victims’ path to recovery and reintegration
as well as in minimizing any strained relationship with family members, and improving
relationship with their community members. This aspect is currently under-resourced and
as Reimer et al. (2007) suggest, rather than concentrating exclusively, or even
predominantly, on the individual victims, resources should be more directed to family,
neighbours, and villagers etc., the complimentary sectors of influence.
Gaps in the Reintegration of Male Victims of Trafficking
Surtees and Craggs (2010) assert that the existing studies with victims of trafficking have
been often conducted with victims while they are still receiving support, thus there is
little information on what happens when they reintegrate back home. This finding is
emphasised by Scholenhardt & Loong (2011) who state that the research on victims once
they reintegrate into their community has been one of the most unexplored areas.
Additionally, as already noted supra, the issues raised on reintegration mainly stem from
the literature on trafficking of women and children, indicating a major gap in
understanding how reintegration of men and women can be different. As a result of this
lack of literature and a stand-alone reintegration model for men, the key components of
reintegration that have been used for women and children have been applied for men:
the provision of social services, healthcare, medical and psychological care; the provision
of legal assistance; the provision of job training and prevention of stigmatisation. Due to
gender difference, it would be interesting to examine whether the reintegration process
and its components could be gender neutral or different in a gendered way.
Additionally, Caouette (1998) argues that even if there are active NGOs in the
reintegration field, only a small percentage of victims have been returning and are being
assisted through this channel of reintegration. This has resulted from the invisibility and
extent of the trafficking problem, the limited capacity of NGOs and the complexity and
time-consuming efforts that are crucial for individual reintegration. She further stresses
that most of the victims attempt reintegration on their own without assistance, posing a
challenge for those organizations that can provide assistance to the victims and making it
difficult to investigate and provide appropriate support to the victims. This confirms the
discussion supra regarding the lack of proper victim identification in both Cambodia and
30
Invincible Ignorance? Reintegration Quandary of Male Victims of Trafficking in Cambodia
Thailand and clearly illuminates the social-cultural perception (and the ignorance) that
men cannot be victims of human-trafficking.
Even where a male victim can be identified, with the current lack of Reintegration
Support provided to them, such identification does not appear to be able to change their
circumstance.
Recent research by Surtees (2013) acknowledges that in the case of male victims, even if
the ideal pathways of reintegration existed, many victims are not likely to benefit from
them as they are not being identified or assisted; and for those who are being assisted
and supported, the support is limited and is not in a full package that would enable them
to successfully and sustainably reintegrate into society. This new finding confirm her 2008
finding where she argues that the support services to male victims were rather limited, as
the support is mainly in the form of a short-term transit shelter, money to travel back
home, and in some rare cases humanitarian packages (Surtees, 2008).
The dilemma facing male victims is clear. Only a small number of them have so far been
assisted. So it is difficult to determine from past experiences what kind of Reintegration
Support can ensure that they successfully reintegrate and live happily in their
communities to pursue their life objectives. The question is particularly significant
because a large number of trafficked men have not been assisted. As Surtees (2013)
found in her study, a majority of these men avoid assistance, and decide to return home
on their own as the reintegration process is too lengthy, complex and not responsive to
their needs.
The lack of funding and organisational support appears to be a major reason for the lack
of support provided to trafficked and/or exploited migrants. Surtees (2013) highlights the
current dearth of resources for Reintegration Support as it is under-financed by both the
national government and donor community. However, Jobe (2010) emphasises the
importance of Reintegration Support in helping and promoting the rehabilitation of the
victims and other exploited migrants and reducing the risks of re-trafficking.
31
Invincible Ignorance? Reintegration Quandary of Male Victims of Trafficking in Cambodia
There are clearly two sets of dilemmas here: one, only a small number of male victims
receives basic Reintegration Support and a large number of victims and exploited
migrants are left out from the support system. This indicates the possibility that a large
numbers of these male vulnerable groups are likely to be again trafficked and exploited
through re-migration. Therefore, the central question is whether there is any mechanism
or system that could reduce the likelihood of this vulnerable group being trafficked and
exploited again?
This is a question of the right of a human being to be free from slavery, trafficking and
exploitation: a right to demand a standard of life as contained in the Universal
Declaration of Human Rights. As evidenced in the above discussion, Reintegration
Support is one way to ensure that this re-abuse and re-exploitation could be minimised.
Therefore, this research aims to examine whether there is a reintegration assistance
package or model which is suitable to the needs of both assisted and non-assisted male
victims; and whether such a package or model would help them to successfully
reintegrate in their community without the need to re-migrate wherein the prospect of
re-trafficking and re-exploitation is high. Therefore, the main research question this
research aims to tackle is whether a Reintegration Support package would enable male
Cambodian victims of trafficking to successfully reintegrate back into their communities
and prevent their further trafficking and exploitative re-migration? Although the question
mainly looks at the male victims, this research will also pay brief attention to whether
that support can also applicable to majority of other exploited migrants.
32
Invincible Ignorance? Reintegration Quandary of Male Victims of Trafficking in Cambodia
Chapter Five: Findings and Discussions
Case Study
In order to get a clear understanding of the background and provide demographic
information of Cambodian male victims and migrants, this research has developed a Case
Study that looks into the types of work the victims and migrants performed in Thailand,
how they were assisted when they were deported back to Cambodia, how long they
stayed at transit shelters, what kind of services they received, how they were
reintegrated back into their communities, whether the reintegration was with
Reintegration Support or not, the procedures followed and the follow-up or monitoring
post their reintegration. The methodology of how the Case Study was conducted is
described in Box 2.
As men are the focal point of this study, the case profiles was first divided on the basis of
gender/sex. Then each gender/sex category was categorised based on age, education,
marital status, occupation in Thailand, types of cases, referral system, duration of stay at
the transit shelter, source provinces etc. and analysed. The information is depicted in the
following graphs and the brief analysis of the case study is illustrated in Box 2a, b and c.
33
Invincible Ignorance? Reintegration Quandary of Male Victims of Trafficking in Cambodia
There were 731 (70%) of men among these 1,137 clients who resided at the HCC transit
shelter.
Figure 6: Case Number
Study: Number
of Clients
Assisted
at Transit Shelter
of Clients:
Oct 2008-Jun
2014
2014 (6mths)
2013
2012
2011
2010
2009
2008 (3mths)
0
50
100
Women
150
200
250
300
Men
Male victims and migrants came from 22 out of the 25 provinces in Cambodia, indicating
that migrants come from almost across the country.
Figure 7: Source Provinces of Clients
Source
Provinces
Source
Provinces
Prey
Veng
Prey
Veng
Battambang
Battambang
Kampot
Kampot
Kampong Cham
Kampong Cham
Siem Reap
Siem Reap
Koh Kong
Koh
Kong
Takeo
Takeo
Banteay Meanchey
BanteayChhnang
Meanchey
Kampong
Kampong
KampongChhnang
Speu
Kampong
Speu
Kanadal
Kanadal
Sihanouk Ville
Sihanouk
Ville
Pursat
Pursat
Kampong Thom
Svay Rieng
Kampong
Thom
Phnom
Penh
Svay Rieng
Pailin
Phnom
Penh
Kratie
Pailin
Kep
Kratie
Steung Treng
Kep
Mondul
Kiri
Steung Treng
Udor Meanchey
Mondul Kiri
Udor Meanchey0
50
0
20
40
100
60
80
150
100
120
200
140
160
180
34
Invincible Ignorance? Reintegration Quandary of Male Victims of Trafficking in Cambodia
35
Invincible Ignorance? Reintegration Quandary of Male Victims of Trafficking in Cambodia
36
Invincible Ignorance? Reintegration Quandary of Male Victims of Trafficking in Cambodia
37
Invincible Ignorance? Reintegration Quandary of Male Victims of Trafficking in Cambodia
Discussion of Findings
The four key findings that emerged from the interviewees (both key informants and male
victims and migrants) are presented in Table 5. All the issues derived from the
interviewees are included and may be seen in Appendix 4 and 5.
38
Invincible Ignorance? Reintegration Quandary of Male Victims of Trafficking in Cambodia
Key Finding One: Exploitation is Very Evident
All respondents (male victims and migrants) clearly illuminated that men can also be
victims of trafficking, although much attention is paid to women and children and not
much to men. More than half of the respondents have been lured to work in Thailand
39
Invincible Ignorance? Reintegration Quandary of Male Victims of Trafficking in Cambodia
with offers of high paid jobs. However, instead they had to work in harsh conditions and
were abused physically and psychologically. Almost half the respondents stated that they
had heard about boat workers getting abused or threatened with deduction of pay or
with threat of being thrown into the sea if they are seen as incapable of working.
The Bi-Yearly Wage Payment
It is not uncommon to hear from the respondents that their salaries would be paid to
them only after six months of work, particularly in the case of those who were working on
fishing vessels. Almost half the respondents indicated that they did not receive their
promised salary. The bi-yearly wage payment in itself and the unpaid wage to workers
appear to be labour exploitation and forced labour.
Some respondents indicated that the boss would lend or give them around 200 baht
($6.50) on a weekly basis and some around 1,000-2,000 baht on a monthly basis when
the boats landed. This is clearly not an advance payment since it is money the workers
have already earned and are entitled to. The allowance would then be deducted from
their salary, if the workers were lucky to be paid at the end of six months. This appears to
demonstrate that the employers are manipulative, and violate the workers’ rights. The
workers however do not realise that their salary is being lent by them unknowingly to
their employers.
A System of Forced Dependency
The free food and free accommodation provided by the employers also led the workers
often unconsciously into a state of dependency and control. This is corroborated by the
USAID which points out that employers have created a system of ‘forced dependencies’ in
order to control workers (USAID, 2010). In case the workers chose to leave their jobs they
will lose their accommodation and their means of subsistence (Pereira and Vasconcelos,
2008). This was corroborated by a 22 year-old victim who had to force himself to leave his
jobs on several occasions, because he did not get his salary when he asked for it, but
instead received verbal warnings that he would be arrested, as illustrated in Box 3.
40
Invincible Ignorance? Reintegration Quandary of Male Victims of Trafficking in Cambodia
Clearly this appears to be another act of exploitation – whereby a forced dependency is
created. Pereira and Vasconcelos (2008) argue that the workers are tied to conditions in
which they are unable to have voices or even to get what they are supposed to be
entitled to. In many cases, workers face a double dilemma: if they demand their salary,
they could be reported and arrested. And if they did not ask for their salary, then they
might lose their salary altogether. Key informant (4) uses a metaphor to compare the
workers’ conditions to a Cambodian proverb: ‘When you only have two ways to survive –
waterway or land-way: waterway, where you will encounter crocodiles; and land-way,
where you will encounter tigers.’
In some cases workers are made to believe that they themselves are to be blamed if they
have been abused.
… some boat workers got hit by the boat captain. But that if he is lazy and don’t
want to work. If you work hard, you don’t get scolded or abused by your boss. If
you got sick while the boat just left the dock, then the boat will not return, until it
caught the fish as planned (Respondent 4).
The above statement also clearly illustrates how the health and wellbeing of workers are
not considered at all. This is exacerbated when they are blamed if they are abused or
even murdered. ‘I heard that some got pushed into the sea, but if they are very sick or
they are lazy’ (Respondent 6).
Additionally, as key informant (1) emphasised health is only considered as an
occupational hazard – it is part of the job and part of the risk of migration, but it is not
part of the exploitation.
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Invincible Ignorance? Reintegration Quandary of Male Victims of Trafficking in Cambodia
Key Finding Two: A Reintegration Support Package Is Important – The Male
Victims; and Difference in Gender Needs
An important finding emerging from the interviewees is that if the male victims are to be
prevented from their continuing susceptibility to further trafficking or exploitative
migration then a well-planned Reintegration Support system needs to be put in place for
all victims.
Male Trafficked Victims
As pointed out in the [introduction], victims of trafficking are entitled to protection and
support under the Palermo Protocol. It is agreed by all key informants that the victims
must be supported. The initial problem is in determining who victims are and in
identifying them. It is argued by a majority of the key informants that the identification of
victims is continuing to pose a challenge. This is because different NGOs and government
agencies have different interpretations of who a ‘victim’ is. As explained by one of the key
informants, their organisation was the first to provide transit shelter support to male
returned migrants deported from Thailand. In the beginning, all the deportees were
categorised as victims of labour trafficking. The cases were later reclassified based on the
actual exploitation that happened, either for their labour, or as smuggled migrants or as
illegal migrants. Some of the key informants point out that there used to be consultation
among Government Agencies and NGOs regarding victim identification procedures. This
42
Invincible Ignorance? Reintegration Quandary of Male Victims of Trafficking in Cambodia
however has been halted due to funding constraints. As victim identification is crucial in
victim protection, there is a need to resume the consultation among government
agencies and NGOs to standardise the definition of a victim. Identification of the victims
of human trafficking appears to be a global issue, and requires a global response.
Elements that Reintegration Support package should encompass are illustrated in Box 4.
In addition, most of the key informants underscore the importance of collaborative and
coordinative efforts among Government Agencies and NGOs that work with male victims
to ensure the holistic support approach could be provided. Key informant (9) informed
that the existing Multi-Disciplinary Team model was useful – a model which provided a
platform for Government and NGO staff to work together on a specific trafficking case, so
called ‘case conferencing’ in order to provide comprehensive support to a victim. The
model provided opportunity for a victim-centred and holistic approach to be realised, and
a relationship between relevant stakeholders working on the case to be strengthened. It
is informed by some of the key informants that their organisation is seeking to
reintroduce this model, if the organisations are able to secure funding for anti-trafficking
project.
Moreover, it is emphasised by most of the interviewees that Reintegration Support is
fundamental to ensure that male victims do not have to leave home, to access and gain a
skill and access a livelihood programme, to have stable employment, to improve their
living conditions and to fulfil their self-esteem. One key informant claims that the victims
were happy when support was given to them as their needs had been responded to, as
evidenced by the response of a 16 year-old victim, as illustrated in Box 5.
43
Invincible Ignorance? Reintegration Quandary of Male Victims of Trafficking in Cambodia
This finding corresponds to the conclusion by USAID (2010) that the perception that male
victims do not need support or do not want it is worrying because men do also need
support if the support is structured toward their needs.
While migration is perceived as the only way that migrants could earn a living or support
a family, the notion of ‘togetherness’ is quite important to some of the victims and their
family members. A wife and a mother of five said she would never let her husband
migrate again regardless of their impoverished conditions: ‘We rather eat salt or rock, as
long as my husband is with us. Even if we fight sometimes, but at least I know he is here. I
feel warmth. I can sleep better at night.’ Likewise, a 38 year-old respondent states that: ‘It
is good to live with your family. If you are sick, then your family can take of you.’
This would indicate that the families of victims would fully support a reintegration
package that ensures that the victim does not have to migrate again for work.
Gender Considerations on Reintegration Support
Whilst it is acknowledged that male victims and migrants do need as much support as
women, the different needs between them are reflected in the response of most of the
interviewees. Almost half of the key informants indicated that it is more challenging for
44
Invincible Ignorance? Reintegration Quandary of Male Victims of Trafficking in Cambodia
them to work with men than with women. One particular instance is regarding ‘men’s
decision-making’ on vocational training, it is pointed out that they tend to change their
minds more often than woman. Additionally, the challenges are amplified because of the
limited set of skill training available for men and budget constraints of Government and
NGOs.
Nevertheless, one key informant acknowledges that their organisation is seeking ways to
work closely with men and to understand their real needs: ‘Maybe there is a gap that we
miss to see, or not really touch on their needs.’ Additionally, there is an emphasis that
there is a need to train social workers to work with men. Understanding the needs of the
victims and migrants and the special training that social workers, (so used as they have
been this far to working with women) to work with men, is a key step towards the
successful reintegration of male-victims into society.
Most of the key informants have stressed that the process of reintegration is not different
in the case of men and women. What might be different is shelter-stay, as male victims of
labour-trafficking are often reintegrated back home, whereas female victims of sex
trafficking/exploitation are mainly referred to a rehabilitation centre as part of the
reintegration process. Nevertheless, a small number of female victims of labour
trafficking [majority are men] have also been reintegrated back to their family. It is found
that for victims of labour trafficking, family reunion is one of the main reasons they wish
to return back home. And promptly returning home would help them to avoid
complications they may have with the local authorities regarding their illegal entry to
Thailand.
Most key informants are of the view that in general, shelter-stay is not ideal for male
victims. Key Informant (8) emphasises that even when men are victims, they do not face
as much challenge as women – their family still accepts and need them back home
because they are the head of the household. Keeping men in shelter is not a viable option
for them and their families. Key informant (6) further reiterates the importance of
Reintegration Support to be tailored to men in their communities.
45
Invincible Ignorance? Reintegration Quandary of Male Victims of Trafficking in Cambodia
The issue of stigmatisation also plays an essential role in unlocking the differences in
gender dimensions and contributing to our understanding of whether a home or a shelter
would be the ideal place for victims. Many key informants claim that as men are not
victims of sexual exploitation, there is less stigma attached to them than to women after
their reintegration back to their community. However, there are cases of young boys who
are sexually abused, and stigma may be attached by them, though it is considerably less
than for female victims. However this could only be a perception and it cannot be clearly
stated that men and boys experience less stigmatisation than woman. The presumption
that men experience less stigmatisation indicates that although the issue of trafficking of
men is recognised, yet there is need to conduct more systematic and thorough studies on
the different aspects of gender needs of male and female victims in order to ensure their
needs are promptly and appropriately responded to.
Furthermore, it has been stressed by some of the informants that by creating an enabling
environment for male victims to participate in social activities and groups in their
community, the process of their recovery is hastened. At the same time it contributes to
sharing of information and raising of awareness of community members. Such support
activities do not appear to exist presently. What exists is a focus on sharing of experiences
among the victims at major cultural events or festivals. It is acknowledged that such social
groups have been established for female victims. Therefore it is important to learn from
the existing programme and examine whether such social groups and group activities
could be created for male victims and migrants as a sharing and learning platform that
could contribute to awareness raising of the local villagers as well as contributing to the
early re-recovery of male victims.
46
Invincible Ignorance? Reintegration Quandary of Male Victims of Trafficking in Cambodia
Key Finding Three: Reintegration Support Has the Potential to Stop Victims
and Migrants from Re-Migrating
Migration is currently one of few alternatives for many Cambodians seeking job
opportunities abroad. Many interviewees indicate that family responsibility and the
severe lack of livelihood and job opportunity in Cambodia are some of the reason why
people migrate. Common responses are that, ‘migration is a normal thing’, or ‘migration
is common in the village’ or ‘it is hard to stop people from migration’ is evidence of this.
Thus notwithstanding the exploitation that victims and migrants encounter, they still
consider migration outside of the country as a good option for them to find jobs. ‘Even
some bosses are mean, they are no good, people still want to migrate, as it is better to
find work in Thailand’ (Respondent 7) is an example of this attitude.
It has been stressed by a majority of the interviewees that Reintegration Support is crucial
for male victims, as it has a potential to stop them from re-migration. However some
informants expressed concerns that the Reintegration Support may be a short-term
solution; and it may not be able to stop victims from re-migration altogether.
Despite these challenges, the findings indicate that there are many exceptions and that
there are many who do not wish to re-migrate. Two key determinants that led to their
decision not to migrate would include but may not be limited to:
47
Invincible Ignorance? Reintegration Quandary of Male Victims of Trafficking in Cambodia

The ‘new’ migrant who comes to terms with their victimised status and
exploitation and

The age factor.
The New Migrant Who Comes to Terms with Exploitation
Many informants stressed that many of the migrants are existing or recurrent migrants
who continue to re-migrate to Thailand repeatedly after their deportation. Some may
even see Thailand as their home, even though their residential status in Thailand would
be ‘illegal’. This is borne out by the statement that ‘Some of our clients have been
arrested, jailed and deported several times, but they still re-migrate to Thailand’ (Key
informant 4). On the other hand some key informants point out that re-migration is not
always pursued as an option by returning migrants and victims, especially if they are firsttime migrants and/or victims of exploitation or trafficking. This is borne out by the
statement ‘But some migrants, often new or if they are trafficked or labour exploited, are
often scared and reluctant to return to Thailand (Key informant 2). Key informant (8)
further underlines that ‘New migrants are likely to be more vulnerable and afraid of remigration because they do not have experience in managing their lives in Thailand.’
However, their vulnerability may be lower if they migrate with close relatives who are
experienced migrants.
This appears to indicate that those who have gone through an ordeal or have had bad
experiences or are new and lack of social network in Thailand are less likely to re-migrate.
However, for some migrants, and especially when recurrent migrants are exploited, they
perceive exploitation simply as a part of their general misfortune. Many victims and
migrants in the interviews tend to put the blame on their misfortune or fate rather than
seeing it as legal or criminal issue.
The Age Factor
The age of the victim and migrant seems to play a key part in their decision and
propensity to re-migrate. It is generally seen that the older a victim or a migrant is, the
less likely he is to re-migrate. An illustration in Box 7, an undocumented migrant who
swears he would never return to Thailand, appears to indicate that age of the victim and
migrant is significant in determining whether he will re-migrate or not.
48
Invincible Ignorance? Reintegration Quandary of Male Victims of Trafficking in Cambodia
Another 38 year-old smuggled migrant says: ‘But there are a lot of young people works on
the fishing boat. I am getting a bit older, so maybe it is better for me to work on land.’
This finding is reinforced by the responses from both informants and respondents which
show that many of the recurrent migrants are in the prime age of 20 to 35 years. The HCC
Case Study which shows that a vast majority of their clients is aged between 18-35 years
old, further strengthens this finding.
At the same time, it is also found that there are cases of children (under the age of 18)
working on the fishing boats. For them, the work on the fishing boats is difficult and hard
to endure. As a 16 year-old victim of labour trafficking says:
We have to work a long hour at night time. I am still young so I got very tired, but
the boss screamed at me and did not allow me to rest. Sometimes when I took a
rest, the boss hit me. When I cried, he threatened to throw me into the sea. I have
to stop crying. We have to work during day too, so we don’t have much rest.
This young person was clear that he would never re-migrate to Thailand. With
Reintegration Support, he is determined to work hard, learns skills and hopes to have his
own business one day whereby he can generate an income to support his family.
The years after 35 seem to be an age of indecisiveness about whether they wanted to
return to Thailand or not. A 38 year-old undocumented migrant said he wanted to return
to Thailand, but at the same time also expressed his fear of returning because of his bad
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Invincible Ignorance? Reintegration Quandary of Male Victims of Trafficking in Cambodia
migration experience previously, ‘I am a bit scared to go to Thailand. I feel I don’t want to
take risk, as the previous journey was not good for me.’
From the above discussion it would be correct to arrive at a finding that up to about 35
years of age, the victims and migrants would want to re-migrate. Thereafter there is a
period of indecisiveness and the older they get, the less and less they would want to remigrate.
Adequate Reintegration Support vs Re-Migration
A majority of key informants pointed out that adequate Reintegration Support would
have the potential to prevent the victims from re-migrating, as indicated by key informant
(9): ‘Most important for clients are the adequate living standards and access to livelihood
opportunity.’ This is corroborated by most of respondents that they would not re-migrate
if Reintegration Support is provided to them.
It is obvious that the main reason many Cambodians leave home to seek employment
opportunities abroad is the severe lack of jobs within Cambodia. In addition, as evidenced
by the responses of the interviewees, the lack of general skills among the migrants is high.
Therefore, the provision of a Reintegration Support which combined the two is likely to
keep them at home, and thus minimise their vulnerability to be exploited through remigration.
Moreover, a holistic Reintegration Support to both the victims and their families is
highlighted as it has a strong possibility to stop reintegrants from re-migration. This
holistic approach has been seen to have been undertaken by the few NGOs working with
male victims in Cambodia. It is crucial to support their family; nonetheless, it is also
equally important to ensure that such support does not in any way create an environment
of dependency. Key informant (3) reiterates the important of this concept and states that
their organisation has adopted Maimonides’s philosophy that ‘Give a man a fish and you
feed him for a day; teach a man to fish and you feed him for a lifetime’ (Maimonides,
n.d.). A 16 year-old male victim of labour trafficking emphasises this concept that:
50
Invincible Ignorance? Reintegration Quandary of Male Victims of Trafficking in Cambodia
We were asked to contribute to a business start-up, as part of the deal with
HCC….. Once my parents could sell sugar juice, they could have some income and
then they could help my brother to undertake skill training.
The responses from the short questionnaire which was administered to an additional 20
victims and migrants and which focused mainly on whether (and if so) they would remigrate to Thailand, was rather surprising. A majority of them did not wish to return to
Thailand, as illustrated in Table 9. Even those who said they would re-migrate added that
their decision would be reversed if they were to be offered a livelihood opportunity in
their villages.
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Invincible Ignorance? Reintegration Quandary of Male Victims of Trafficking in Cambodia
It is true that the questionnaire was administered by the organisation which provided
them assistance when they were deported back to Cambodia: both transit shelter and
travel allowance to return home. So at first glance, it can be questioned whether the
responses were legitimate, or whether it was because they did not want to reveal their
intention to migrate to the organisation that was assisting them so as to avoid
complication. Nonetheless, the staff of the NGO claimed that although their responses
were astounding, the organisation’s follow up activities with 76 reintegrated clients in the
first six months of 2014 indicated that only 25% of the reintegrants re-migrated to
Thailand.
It is also found that many Cambodians tend to migrate seasonally to find work outside of
their community. Many rural Cambodians would spend time working in their village
during the harvest season and migrate outside of their village after the harvest season. A
28 year-old smuggled migrant mentioned that he may re-migrate once the rainy season is
over. ‘Now it is a rainy season, and it rains more out in the sea. So I may wait till the rainy
season ends.’
According to key informants, the victims and migrants may not want to re-migrate if
livelihood opportunities existed in Cambodia, particularly in their community. The
challenge then is how to ensure that adults do not migrate from the country. With the
growing investment in Cambodia, job creation in the country should find a prime focus in
government policies. Some respondents pointed out that most of the jobs being created
in Cambodia are for women. Government policy would also have to be directed to ensure
a balance and ensure that there are jobs available for men.
But some of the key informants assert the importance of the competitive salaries paid in
Thailand (except the unfortunate who were unable to receive their salaries). Some of the
interviewees stress that even if the salary in Cambodia is perceived to be lower than in
Thailand, as long as the job in Cambodia is stable, it is likely that many male migrants
would want to stay back in their own country.
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Invincible Ignorance? Reintegration Quandary of Male Victims of Trafficking in Cambodia
Key Finding Four: Successful Reintegration is Likely but Would Require
More Time for the Impact to be realised
Key Potential Factors Lead to Successful Reintegration
Common responses from key informants regarding the Potential Factors for successful
Reintegration are presented in Box 8.
In fact, these elements were found in the literature for successful reintegration
programmes that targeted at female victims of trafficking.
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Invincible Ignorance? Reintegration Quandary of Male Victims of Trafficking in Cambodia
Obviously, skills training provide an opportunity for reintegrants to increase their
employment prospects and hence for improving income to support the family. Whilst this
could be a potential step toward successful reintegration, some key informants
emphasise that it is important that the skills are aligned with enabling market
environment. In the case of improving farming skills, even if the reintegrants were able to
improve their yields, without an enabling marketing opportunity, they are less likely to
generate income. Moreover, ‘stable employment’ has been emphasised as a vital element
for reintegrants not to re-migrate.
Creating an enabling environment for skills training and for jobs is then becoming
important in policy and programmes of the Government and of NGOs. Little opportunities
for vocational skills training and employment for men are currently available. A key
informant who works directly with reintegrants elucidates that only reintegrates
undertake training in only a few vocational skills. These include training in mechanical and
farming skills, [in addition to small business prospect]. The most common mechanical
skills training which appear to suit both victims and community needs are motor-bike
and/or bicycle repairing skills. These skills training are offered in the local community
whereas the mechanical skills training for car or mobile phone is only available in the
capital city. The mechanical skill training for cars is costly in term of resource and time;
and reintegrants have to leave their family to undertake the training in the city.
Mechanical skill training appears to attract interest from reintegrants. Some key
informants warn that it is important to ensure the supply of trained persons should not
exceed demand, otherwise, the community would have a surfeit of people with the same
skills, and fewer people would benefit from it.
The Ministry of Labour and Vocational Training (MoLVT) has set up a specialised skill
trainings for men (mechanical or factory-specific skills training). However, the placements
for the trainings are often limited and are mainly for those who are registered or
recruited to work in Korea or Japan. The recruitment is often competitive as only a small
number of workers are selected. The fees for the recruitment and training process are
often quite costly, thus excluding many of the migrants who would be unable to afford
the high cost of registration and training.
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Invincible Ignorance? Reintegration Quandary of Male Victims of Trafficking in Cambodia
Motivation is Most Critical Factor
Among the numerous relevant factors, a critical factor for the successful reintegration of
trafficking victims is the ‘motivation’ of the reintegrants themselves. A key informant who
has worked with over a thousand reintegrants emphasises that without such motivation
of the reintegrants themselves, support programmes aiming toward improving the
reintegrants’ socio-economical or health situation would not achieve much . Support and
attention from NGOs or family of reintegrants is also essential in their reintegration
process, and added to the motivation of reintegrants, is likely to contribute to a faster
successful reintegration. Furthermore, while the motivation of victims is crucial for their
recovery and building hope in life, it is equally important that the support from the NGOs
or government continues, at least until the victim is able to fully reintegrate back in the
society and is able to continue to live his life on his own.
One central aspect of this support is the process of Monitoring and Evaluation (M&E).
Most key informants indicate that NGOs tend to have different M&E mechanisms. Though
there is no common standard regarding M&E procedures in Cambodia, the Ministry of
Social Affairs, Veterans and Youth Rehabilitation (MoSVY) has set criteria that a case can
be closed within a year. Some key informants stress that due to the different nature and
needs of individual victims, M&E needs to be conducted between six months and two
years. A thorough M&E is important in contributing to build up self-confidence and
esteem of the reintegrants, as described by one of the key informants:
They are very happy to know that we are visiting them. They feel we care for them
and we don’t neglect them. And that is very important psychologically for them to
heal and improve their self-esteem (Key informant 2).
Can Sustainability of the NGOs and Functional Government Agency be an Answer
to the Reintegration and Illegal Migration Challenge?
Organisations that provide direct Reintegration Support to male victims claimed that their
programme is successful, as a majority of their clients are satisfied with the skill training;
the employment opportunities and the support receive from NGOs. The above discussion
also appears to indicate that successful reintegration of male victims back to their
55
Invincible Ignorance? Reintegration Quandary of Male Victims of Trafficking in Cambodia
community is likely. However the challenge is that the identification of Independent
Variables of successful reintegration is still in an experimental stage as Reintegration
Support to male victims have only been introduced recently in Cambodia. Moreover, the
success of the programme largely depends on the support of the donor community.
Currently, there are only a few donors for anti-human-trafficking Programmes in
Cambodia. Sustainability of Reintegration Support to male victims can be assured only if
there is funding available. Needless to say, there is wide consensus from key informants
that a Reintegration Support package could help male victims to successfully reintegrate
into their community once the barrier of employment opportunity is tackled and
adequately addressed.
The recent issue of a ‘Prakas’, a Directive Order from Government to issue free passports
to about 250,000 Cambodian migrants returning from Thailand and the announcement to
create a ‘One Window Service’5 between Cambodia and Thailand aimed to reduce illegal
migration to Thailand have has been welcomed even though it has caused some
scepticisms on its effectiveness. Nevertheless, the effectiveness of such services largely
depends on good cooperation between the Cambodian and their Thai counterparts. With
the current change of government in Thailand, some key informants felt that the issues
may not be resolved in the short-term.
5
A holistic service provided to migrants at the border point where all key relevant staff from different
departments from both countries working together in order to provide efficient and effective service to
migrants (include from issuing of work permit, identification of victims, among others)
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Invincible Ignorance? Reintegration Quandary of Male Victims of Trafficking in Cambodia
Chapter Six: Recommendations and Conclusion
Recommendations
In the light of the findings and experience of the researcher in the area of humantrafficking, the following recommendations are proposed which will contribute to
improving the situation of the victims and migrants.

The recognition of men as victims of trafficking, overriding the conventional
wisdom that only women and children can be victims should lead to the creation
of an enabling environment tailored to the special needs of men, giving men a
long over-due acknowledgment as victims who need support. Governments,
donor agencies and NGOs have key mutual roles towards ensuring the
establishment of such an environment while (but not limited to) increasing
livelihood opportunities, vocational skill training and promoting a stable
employment for male victims.

There is a strong need to accelerate and strengthen cooperation between
Cambodia and Thailand in combating cross-border trafficking, particularly the
development of Standardised Victims Identification procedures in Thailand and
Cambodia and referral of the victims and migrants.

There is also a strong need for moving quickly towards improving victim
identification processes and legalising the migration status of about 250,000
returned migrants from Thailand through the establishment of a functioning joint
One Window Service between Cambodia and Thailand.

A clear mechanism must be put in place to promptly and effectively implement
the ‘Prakas’ on issuing free Passports to the 250,000 Cambodian migrants
returning from Thailand. It is equally important to raise awareness within
Cambodian on the procedures for obtaining a Passport especially in the source
provinces where there is a high risk of migration.

As investment is growing in Cambodia, job creation should find a prime focus in
government policies, and needs to be directed towards ensuring a balance
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Invincible Ignorance? Reintegration Quandary of Male Victims of Trafficking in Cambodia
between the job creation for women and men ensuring that jobs are available for
both women and men.

A consultative platform should be developed to review the definition of
trafficking, in order to ensure that exploited migrants who are victims of labour
exploitation are not excluded from protection and assistance.

There is need to conduct more systematic and thorough studies on different
aspects of gender needs of male and female victims of trafficking to ensure that
their needs are promptly and appropriately responded to.
The present research indicates that the victims and migrants are less likely to re-migrate if
they are provided a Reintegration Support. While M&E is an important tool to measure
the success of this intervention, it is imperative that studies of the impact of such
intervention are conducted after a period of time to determine whether the Potential
Factors that presently contribute towards successful reintegration can be indicators to
confirm such successes in future interventions.
Conclusion
This study highlights the issue of trafficking of Cambodian men for labour exploitation to
Thailand and the importance of providing Reintegration Support to the victims and
migrants when they return back to Cambodia. The study is one of the first few to explore
this issue, and the challenge of reintegration as well as open a door of opportunity for the
issues to be tackled.
The aim of the study was to gain a better understanding of whether there is a
Reintegration Support package or model which is suitable to the needs of male victims
that would help them to successfully reintegrate into their community, hence reducing
their vulnerability to re-migration. The main research question therefore focussed on
whether a Reintegration Support package could enable Cambodian male victims to
successfully reintegrate into their communities and prevent their further trafficking and
exploitative re-migration.
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Invincible Ignorance? Reintegration Quandary of Male Victims of Trafficking in Cambodia
The study has found that exploitation of Cambodian migrants working in Thailand is
rampant. The exploitation and trafficking of men appears to be coming to light with
increasing recognition that men can also be victims of trafficking. Unpaid wages, longhours of work, lack of adequate rest, bi-yearly wage payments, and the physical and
psychological abuses which male migrants undergo, clearly proves exploitation. Sadly the
victims and migrants do not realise that their rights have been violated, and in fact, they
consider this form of violation and exploitation as parts of their misfortune. They have
also unconsciously fallen into a state of forced dependency and control because food and
accommodation is freely provided by their employers. If they want to leave their jobs,
they face the threat of being reported to the police and are likely to lose their salaries and
means of subsistence. Therefore, regardless of the extent of exploitation, the victims and
migrants continue to unintentionally enable their employers to control and exploit them.
One of the more significant findings to emerge from this study is that a Reintegration
Support package is important and has the potential to enable the victims to successfully
reintegrate into their communities, and thus prevent their further re-trafficking and
exploitative re-migration. While it is unanimously agreed that the victims must be
supported, with the current limited funding available, it is impossible to extend support to
exploited migrants and/or victims of labour exploitation (not trafficked victims). Hence
these excluded groups are likely to face future re-trafficking and/or exploitation through
re-migration.
Though the condition of these excluded groups would demand solutions, the inherent
challenge for government and practitioners at present is how to ensure that the male
victims are able to receive the support they are entitled to. The current lack of
Standardised Victim Identification and the different interpretations of who is a ‘victim’
have excluded many victims from assistance, and continue to pose challenges in providing
support and protection to trafficked victims. The importance of strong coordination and
collaboration between key governments and NGOs, within and across the border have
been emphasised as keys towards eliminating human-trafficking and strengthening
support to trafficked victims.
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Invincible Ignorance? Reintegration Quandary of Male Victims of Trafficking in Cambodia
Additionally, gender plays an important role in determining the right Reintegration
Support for male victims. The findings show that shelter-stay is not ideal for them. Their
Reintegration Support is most viable if it is tailored to their needs and in their
communities. Therefore, an effective intervention could be designed based on different
individual’s needs, as there is no one-size-fit-all approach. Additionally, support to their
family members and the motivation of the male victim himself are fundamental in
ensuring the sustainability of the Reintegration Support.
These findings are consistent with the limited literature available on the subject and the
experiences of those working in the field that men are often deceived into forced labour
conditions without freedom of movement and with no pay and adds substantially to our
understanding of the extent of abuse and exploitation faced by the victims and migrants.
It reinforces the importance of Reintegration Support to be provided to male victims in
the current environment.
Although the findings herein is limited because the Potential Factors of a successful
reintegration are still in early stage of their identification, it is reasonable to conclude
from the above discussion that Reintegration Support has the potential to reduce the
vulnerability of male victims to re-trafficking, as evidenced by the indication of the strong
intention of the victims and migrants not to re-migrate if they are to offered a
Reintegration Support package. This can be achieved through the creation of a
comprehensive and sustainable Reintegration Support and effective victim identification
by anti-trafficking organisations and governments of the source, transit and destination
countries. Unless all those concerned take action soon, the number of trafficked men is
likely to increase.
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Invincible Ignorance? Reintegration Quandary of Male Victims of Trafficking in Cambodia
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Spindler, W. (2010, October 11). Conference Puts Focus on Human Trafficking, Fastest
Growing Criminal Industry. Retrieved March 05, 2014, from UNHCR, United
Nations High Commission for Refugees: http://www.unhcr.org/4cb315c96.html
Surtees, R. (2007). Listening to Victims: Experiences of identification, return and assistance
in South-Eastern Europe. Vienna: ICMPD.
Surtees, R. (2008, April). Trafficked Men As Unwilling Victims. St Anthony's International
Review (STAIR), 4(1), 16-36.
Surtees, R. (2008a). Re/integration of trafficked persons: handling difficult cases. Brussels:
KBF & Vienna: NEXUS Institute.
Surtees, R. (2013). After Trafficking: Experiences and Challenges in the (Re)integration of
Trafficked Persons in the Greater Mekong Sub-region. Bangkok: UNIAP/NEXUS
Institute.
Surtees, R., & Craggs, S. (2010). Beneath the Surface: Methodological Issues in Research
and Data Collection with Assisted Trafficking Victims. Geneva and Washington,
D.C: IOM and NEXUS Institute.
The Asia Foundation. (2005). Reintegration Assistance for Trafficked Women and Children
in Cambodia – A Review. Phnom Penh: The Asia Foundation .
Tsai, L. C. (2013). I will help as much as I can, but I can’t give them everything: The
financial lives of women who were formerly trafficked into sex work in the
Philippines, 2013,. Academic Commons - Columbia University (PhD Paper)
U.S. Department of State. (2011, June 27). The 3Ps: Prevention, Protection, Prosecution.
Retrieved August 01, 2014, from
http://www.state.gov/j/tip/rls/fs/2011/167228.htm
U.S. Department of State. (2012, June). Trafficking in Persons Report June 2012: Country
Narratives: A-C. Retrieved July 21, 2014, from
http://www.state.gov/j/tip/rls/tiprpt/2012/
U.S. Department of State. (2013, June). Trafficking in Persons Report June 2013: Country
Narratives: A-C. Retrieved July 21, 2014, from
http://www.state.gov/j/tip/rls/tiprpt/2013/
U.S. Department of State. (2014, June). Trafficking in Persons Report June 2014: Country
Narratives: A-C. Retrieved July 21, 2014, from
http://www.state.gov/j/tip/rls/tiprpt/2014/index.htm
U.S. Department of State. (2014). What is Modern Slavery? Retrieved August 31, 2014,
from http://www.state.gov/j/tip/what/#
USAID, United States Agency for International Development. (2010, July). Trafficking of
Adult Men in the Europe and Eurasia Region, Final Report. Retrieved September
10, 2014, from http://pdf.usaid.gov/pdf_docs/Pnadw368.pdf
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Invincible Ignorance? Reintegration Quandary of Male Victims of Trafficking in Cambodia
UNIAP, United Nations Inter-Agency Project on Human Trafficking. (2009, April 22).
Exploitation of Cambodian men at sea: Facts about the trafficking of Cambodian
men onto Thai fishing boats. Strategic Information Response Network [SIREN]
Case Analysis, CB-03.
UNIAP, United Nations Inter-Agency Project on Human Trafficking. (2010). Human
Trafficking: Sentinel surveillance, Poipet - Cambodia 2009-2010. Phnom Penh:
UNIAP Cambodia.
UNIAP, World Vision & NEXUS Institute. (2012). (Re)integration: Perspectives of Victim
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NEXUS Institute.
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World Vision Australia. (2009). Fact Sheet: Labour Exploitation. Retrieved August 31,
2014, from
http://www.worldvision.com.au/Libraries/DTL_fact_sheets/Factsheet_Labour.pdf
66
Invincible Ignorance? Reintegration Quandary of Male Victims of Trafficking in Cambodia
Appendices
Appendix 1: Oxford Brookes University’s Consent Form
Appendix 2: Interview Guidelines for Key Informants
Appendix 3: Interview Guidelines for Male Victims and Migrants
Appendix 4: Issues Emerged from the Interviews with Key Informants
Appendix 5: Issues Emerged from the Interviews with Victims and Migrants
Appendix 6: Response to a Short Questionnaire from 20 Victims and Migrants
67
Invincible Ignorance? Reintegration Quandary of Male Victims of Trafficking in Cambodia
Appendix 1: Oxford Brookes University’s Consent Form
68
Invincible Ignorance? Reintegration Quandary of Male Victims of Trafficking in Cambodia
69
Invincible Ignorance? Reintegration Quandary of Male Victims of Trafficking in Cambodia
Appendix 2: Interview Guides for Key Informants
Code reference:……………………
Name of interviewee:……………………………………
Position & Organisation:……………………………………………………………………
Date:……………………… Time: ……………………… Location: ………………………
1)
What kinds of services your organization providing to male victims of trafficking?
2)
In your opinion, what do you think is a successful reintegration?
3)
A research by UNIAP/Nexus indicate that a large proportion of deportees or
repatriatees decide to return home un-assisted, why is it so?
4)
Should programme intervention target at those unassisted clients? Why or why
not?
5)
Do you aware whether there is any social group formed or whether the returned
victims have participated in any community activity? If that’s not existed, do you
think community activity is good for recovery for men? Why or why not.
6)
In your opinion, is reintegration process is different between men and women?
7)
If there is adequate reintegration support, so you think men will stop migrating?
8)
Is there any reintegration model or package that you think will help men to
successfully reintegrate in their community or to prevent them from remigration?
70
Invincible Ignorance? Reintegration Quandary of Male Victims of Trafficking in Cambodia
Appendix 3: Interview Guidelines for Male Victims and Migrants
Code reference: ………………………………
Date: ………………………
Time: ……………………… Location: ………………………
Name: ……………………………… Age: …………
Marital status: …………………
Religion: ………………………………
Educational level: ……………
Occupation: ………………………………
Address:…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
[Focus on experience in source -transit-destination country + recruitmenttransportation-exploitation + experiences of trafficking/exploitation + exit trafficking +
identification]
1. I’ve seen your case files, but is it possible if you could briefly tell me again your
migration journey to Thailand till you end up at HCC shelter?
[Assistance and support at Cambodia upon deportation]
2. What kinds of services you receive when you got back to Cambodia? At the border? At
HCC?
3. Among all the services that you receive, which one do you think is the most important
to you? Why?
4. How do you see the services and support can be improved?
[Reintegration support]
5. What kinds of support that HCC provide to you upon your returning back home?
6. How do your family, neighbour, commune council treat you after you arrive back
home?
7. What kinds of support do you think you need or help you when you’re back home?
71
Invincible Ignorance? Reintegration Quandary of Male Victims of Trafficking in Cambodia
8. What does the term ‘reintegration’ mean to you?
9. What do you think ‘reintegration’ should encompass?
10. Are you being assisted by NGOs in your hometown or the commune council, and
whether you are aware that there are NGOs implementing projects in your
community?
[Correlation between intervention and victim]
11. What does the term ‘victim of trafficking’ mean to you?
12. Can men be victims of trafficking, or only women and children?
[Monitoring mechanism]
13. Have HCC staff ever visited you since you arrived to your hometown? What about
commune council or social affair officers? (If yes, how many times? How supportive
they have been? Have they been able to provide support to your needs?
14. The chance of being trafficked or exploited is high, so do you still want to re-migrate?
15. Any questions you want to ask me?
72
Invincible Ignorance? Reintegration Quandary of Male Victims of Trafficking in Cambodia
Appendix 4: Issues Emerged from the Interviews with Key Informants
Themes
1 = Yes; 1* = Yes, but with conditions; 0 = No
Q1- Organisation details
Reintegration support is recently implemented
New migrants or trafficked victims are scared and don’t
want to re-migrate
No regular consultative meeting on trafficking of men and
reintegration as yet (but just share during meetings)
Reintegration support is only provided to victims
Victims/exploited migrants are identified by informal
network, such as motor-taxi network
Health is part of occupational hazard but not exploitation
Q2-What is successful reintegration
Must help victims (men also victims of trafficking)
Adequate tailored at individual
Stigma for men is less than women
Relevant stakeholder have important roles in successful
reintegration of men into society
A large amount of resource needed
A thorough needs assessment
A thorough M&E is need
Funding is very essential and needed
Multi-disciplinary Team should be strengthened
Marketable opportunity is essential
Balancing supply of skill training and demand for it
Good health
Lack of vocational skill training centres for men
Lack of job, livelihood opportunity
Victim identification consultative meeting should be
resumed
Support for men is limited – mainly on travel allowance to
return home
Not to keep men at shelter
Lack of employable opportunity for men in the village
Lack of family and community needs assessment appear to
exist
Re-migration is likely due to the lack of job opportunity in
the village
There appear to be more jobs for women than men in the
country
Multi-disciplinary team is good for coordination and
ensure client centre’s approach
Family reunion is priority
Q3 – Some deportees don’t need assistance to return
home
Lack of victim identification
Lack of information about the services/lack of staff
To escape from police or get into trouble or complication
with authorities
The process is too long
Q4 – Programmes to target at both victims and nonvictims?
1
1
2
3
4
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
5
6
7
8
Total
1
4
4
1
1
1
9
1
3
1
2
1
2
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
5
1
1
1
1
1
1
5
4
4
4
3
4
3
3
3
7
1
1
2
1
2
1
1
1
3
2
1
1
2
1
1
2
1
1
2
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
9
6
5
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
5
1
1
1
1
6
4
1
1
1
4
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
73
Invincible Ignorance? Reintegration Quandary of Male Victims of Trafficking in Cambodia
Themes
1 = Yes; 1* = Yes, but with conditions; 0 = No
Cooperation with Thailand is necessary
Coordination is key to combat trafficking
Funding sustainability is important
Prevention (awareness raising) activity is important to stop
blind migration
Even not trafficked victims, but should help if they are
worst form of labour exploitation
Harder to measure behavioural change of perpetrator
Donor mapping on TIP activities should be encouraged
Q5 – Are there any social group which can help male
victims in their recovery?
To create sustainability of such program, must ensure that
the clients are fully supported
Q6 – Reintegration process different between men and
women?
Reintegration support is very important
Men don’t stay in shelter
Men are headed household, so need him to be back home
Need to train SW to work with men
Family still accept men, and need them
Q7 – Adequate reintegration support will stop remigration
Government has key role to ensure people stop migrating,
through job creation, competitive paid
Encourage and protect migrants to migrate legally
Encourage investment in the country
Competitive salary is needed in the country
1
2
3
4
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
5
7
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
*
1
1
*
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
X
0
0
1
1
1
*
1
1
1
1
1
1
*
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
*
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
6
5
5
5
X
1
*
1
2
1
1
1
*
1
*
1
1
0
2
1
1
0
4
1
7
3
2
4
3
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
*
1
7
1
4
5
3
4
1
3
3
1
*
1
1
*
1
*
0
4
1
1
1
1
2
7
1
1
1
1
6
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
Total
1
1
1
1
9
1
1
1
*
8
1
1
Short-term solution, need a long-term one
Former victims/migrants will continue to migrate
Will One Window Service help to legalising migrant’s
status?
Fishing industry is more complicated to monitor
Migration is normal
Recurrent migrant tend to return to Thailand (good social
network)
Strategy is to stop younger generation from migration
No more law created, but to strengthen HT law
Strategy is to prevent people not going to fishing sector
Understanding the needs of men is crucial
Family have crucial role to support victims to recover
Q8 – Reintegration model?
Livelihood opportunity
Stable employment
Vocational skill training
Regular follow up (M&E)
Willpower/motivation of victims are important
Standardised indicators are needed
Physical and mental health are no taken into account
Harder to work with men than women
6
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
2
1
1
4
6
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
8
8
7
6
6
5
4
4
1
74
Invincible Ignorance? Reintegration Quandary of Male Victims of Trafficking in Cambodia
Appendix 5: Issues Emerged from Interviews with Victims and Migrants
Themes
1 = Yes; 1* = Yes with conditions; 0 = No
Q1- Backgrounds & Experiences
Hard jobs, not much rest
Going with broker, relatives or former migrant working in
Thailand
Migrate due to the lack of skill and job opportunity in the
country
Promise a high paid job in Thailand
Salary will be paid every six months of working
Got free accommodation or food while in Thailand
Bad fortune
Debt-bondage (the money owe to be deducted from
salary)
Physical abuse
Psychological abuse (not allow to cry, sick, or throw into
sea etc.)
Heard fishermen got abuse, throw into sea, or deduct pay
Fishermen got abused if they are lazy
Not received salary
More young people working on fishing boat
Better for old people to work on land
Thai boss lend money regularly
Salary paid weekly/monthly
Get along well with other workers (from same village)
Deportees are treated badly on truck back to Cambodia
and Thai prison
Threaten to report to police when request for salary
People on boat take drug, like energy drug
It takes too long (up to six month) to get pay to work on
boat / you lose money if you leave
Former migrant workers tend to have good relationship
with Thai boss
Q2- Any support received upon deported back to
Cambodia?
Referred to NGO by motor-taxi member
No complication with police
Received basic info about safe migration, trafficking, etc.
by organisation
Referred to NGO by police
Q3- Most important services received?
Travel allowance to return home
Most projects only support women / trafficked victims
Q4- How services can be improved?
Q5- Support received when reintegrated back home?
Received vocational skill training / technical skill
Family receive support to start up small business
Needs assessment (client, family and community)
Support to set up small business
Q6- Treatment by family, villagers etc.?
Normal – migration is a normal thing
People don’t talk about their bad experiences / People
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
Total
1
1*
1
1
1
1
1
7
1
1*
1
1
1
1
1
7
1
1
4
1
1
4
4
4
4
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
3
1
3
1
3
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
2
1
1
2
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
3
3
3
3
3
3
2
2
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
7
5
1
1
1
1
1
5
1
1
1
1
4
5
1
1
1
1
3
3
3
3
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
5
4
75
Invincible Ignorance? Reintegration Quandary of Male Victims of Trafficking in Cambodia
Themes
1 = Yes; 1* = Yes with conditions; 0 = No
think you interfere with them if you tell them not to
migrate
It’s good to live with your family / ‘togetherness’
Men have to take care of family
Q7- Kinds of support needed?
Need jobs in village
Adequate paid
Need equipment/motor/bike
Return to do old work in village
Vocational skill training
Q8- Reintegration mean?
To return home
Q9-What should reintegration encompass?
Vocational training
Job placement
Support to family
To help to return home
Q10- Assisted by others in village?
Bad perception of financial institution (bank) or micro
credit institution
Q11- What is victims of trafficking?
Someone who has been abused
Someone got sold
Someone who is labour exploited, cheated
Victims used to be girls
Someone who has been arrested and imprisoned
Q12- Can men be victims of trafficking?
No one talk about men as victims / Men are not supposed
to make complaint like girls/women / Don’t like to be
referred as victims
Q13- M&E?
Received phone call
Have been visited more than a few times
Q14- Will you re-migrate? (no=1)
Satisfy with reintegration support received
Tailor at my needs and family
Yes when have money to travel (and when rainy season is
over)
Commitment to training and generating incomes
If got support, will stay at home
Yes, if getting married as need to support family
No, if there is support provided
1
2
3
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
4
5
7
Total
1
4
4
1
1
1
1
6
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1*
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
6
6
3
2
5
1
7
3
3
2
1
1
0
0
0
0
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1*
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
3
4
3
3
3
2
7
5
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
0
4
3
4
5
3
3
3
5
1
1
76
Invincible Ignorance? Reintegration Quandary of Male Victims of Trafficking in Cambodia
Appendix 6: Responses from a Short Questionnaire to 20 Male Victims and Migrants (July 12-14, 2014)
Victims/Migrants
Question 1: Whether they still want to re-migrate?
If no, why?
And if yes, then ask the second question.
No
6
2
1
6
15
Labour trafficking
Labour exploitation
Smuggled migrants
Illegal migrants
Total











Yes
2
1
0
2
5
Reasons
Was cheated (13)
 No jobs (5)
No freedom (12)
 Want to go with others
(hoping to earn money)
Hard job, not much rest
(3)
(12)

Many people migrate to
Don’t get paid (7)
Thailand (5)
Lots of advanced
 Need money to support
payment (9)
family (5)
Afraid of being abused
 Better to take risk in
(10)
country which is more
Difficult to live in Thailand
development than
(no friends, don’t speak
Cambodia (4)
the language) (8)
Hard to separate from
However, they will not refamily (8)
migrate if they are provided
Afraid of being arrested
with the reintegration
and imprisoned (9)
support.
Ashamed (4)
Work part time in village
(6)
Question 2: If there is a reintegration support with
employment or skill training opportunity in Cambodia,
would they still want to re-migrate? Why and why not.
No
N/A
Yes
2*
1
0
2
5
Reasons
2 people (father and son) planned to re-migrate to
Thailand as they know someone in Thailand who
looked for job for them. Even both of them were
victims of trafficking, but they see migration would
help them to earn money. They see exploitation is
part of the misfortune.
However, all of them said that if they are to
provide with the opportunities to learn skill
training and/or job opportunities, they would not
return to Thailand.