Chapter Four
An Introduction to Alternative
Data-Gathering Strategies
and the Special Case of
Uniform Crime Reports
Questions
What are alternative
data-gathering strategies?
Which one best fits
criminal justice research?
Alternative
Data-Gathering Strategies

Experiments

Surveys

Participant Observation

Unobtrusive Measures

Case Studies
Experiments

Control for rival factors that may impair internal validity.

Yield relatively quick and inexpensive quantitative data.

The primary weakness is the lack of control of external validity.

Limited by artificiality.

Methods include laboratory and field experiments, however, not
all subjects lend themselves to experimentation.
Social Surveys

Excellent for gathering data that reflects attitudes/behavior, i.e.,
election polls, opinion polls, and marketing surveys.

The strength is the ability to obtain quantitative data that lends
itself to descriptive and inferential studies and causal analysis.
The statistical controls can control for rival factors.

The method of collecting data include questionnaires and
interviews (mail or telephone contacts).

Criminal justice examples: victimization studies, attitudes toward
police, fear of crime, and self-report studies.
Participant Observation

Primarily qualitative research which focuses on behavior
through observation of a group – a “sensitizing” strategy.

A data gathering strategy that focuses on a grounded theory
approach, in other words, without preconceived hypotheses.

Usually takes place in a natural setting.

The participant (usually the researcher) is the observer.
Unobtrusive Studies

Non-reactive or clandestine.

The key is that the subject is not aware that they are being
studied – avoids “Hawthorne effect.”

Methods – physical trace analysis, analysis of existing data,
i.e., official police statistics, archival, observation, and
simulations. These methods use existing data which can save
time, money, and reactivity.

A specific example is mapping – Geographic Information
Systems (GIS) and other mapping software allow unobtrusive
analysis, i.e., hot spots, grid analysis, and environmental
criminology.
Life History and
Case Studies

A microcriminological approach or in-depth study of only one
or a few cases.

Attempt to find a deeper understanding of subject – sensitize or
“verstehen.”

Methods – analysis of autobiographies, letters, diaries,
biographies, etc.

Examples include Sutherland’s The Professional Thief (Case
Study) and Maas’ The Valachi Papers (Life History).
Methods of Measuring Crime
Uniform Crime Reports
Self- Report Surveys
Victim Surveys
Questions
Do Uniform Crime Reports depict crime
in the United States accurately?
Why does the media rely on them?
UNIFORM CRIME REPORTS

Unobtrusive data.

One of three major sources of crime statistics in the U.S. (Selfreport studies and surveys).

UCR’s comprise the actual crimes known to and recorded by
local police departments – on a monthly basis (Data is collected
by over 17,000 local law enforcement agencies).

UCR’s also report crimes cleared by arrest, i.e., arrested,
charged, and turned over for prosecution. Between 20-21
percent of all reported index crimes are cleared by arrest each
year.

Less than 40 percent of all crime is reported to the police.
Uniform Crime Reports

Divided into two representative categories: Index and nonIndex.

The crime rate for index offenses is based on a population unit
of 100,000.

Results compiled annually by the F.B.I. from local police
department data and are referred to as the Uniform Crime
Reports.
Uniform Crime Reports

Index Crimes (Part l)

Violent
Crime








Criminal Homicide
Forcible Rape
Robbery
Aggravated assault
Burglary
Larceny/theft
Motor vehicle theft
Arson
Non-Index Crimes
(Part 2)

All others (Non-traffic)
Non-violent
Crime
Question
What factors might influence the accuracy
of the Uniform Crime Reports?
Validity of the
Uniform Crime Reports
Three Main Areas of Concern:

Reporting practices: underreporting is the main concern.

Law enforcement practices: varying definitions of crime
types, methods of recording crime differ among
agencies, departmental image concerns, improved
computer technology.

Methodological issues: (see next slide)
Methodological Issues
With UCR Data

No federal crimes are reported (also, some “white-collar”
crimes and victimless crimes are not reported).

Reports are voluntary – they vary in accuracy and
completeness.

Not all police departments submit reports (although Census
estimates show approximately 97% of the nation is covered).

Each act is listed as a single offense for some crime but not for
others.

Only the most serious crime is recorded (for an offender who
commits multiple crimes).
Methodological Issues
With UCR Data

Definitions of crimes vary from F.B.I. to individual states.

UCR arrest statistics do not equal crimes solved or suspects
found guilty.

The crime index is an un-weighted index.

UCR data cannot be used to generalize across jurisdictions.

The UCR does not reflect increased urbanization or increased
awareness.

The F.B.I. uses estimates in its total crime projections.
Question
Why is the crime rate based on a
population rate of 100,000?
Crime Rate
The crime rate is computed by the number of crimes
reported to the police
(based on the seven original index crimes).
Number of Reported Crimes x 100,000 = Rate per 100,000
Total U.S. Population
Clearance Rate
The clearance rate for crimes is when at least one
person is arrested, charged, and turned over to court
for prosecution.
Of all crimes reported to the police,
20-21 percent are cleared by arrest.
(approximately 50 % for violent crimes
and 18% for property crimes).
.
Index Crimes Cleared
by Arrest
2003
Use of NCR Data

Comparison of crime trends with other data
such NCVS and Self-report surveys.

Comparison of crime trends within a particular
jurisdiction over time.
Crime Rate Trends
Violent Crime Trends, 1993-2003
(BJS, 2004)
Property Crime Victimization
Trends, 1993-2003 (BJS, 2004)
Questions
What causes crime rates to fluctuate?
What may have caused crime rates to
trend downward in the 1990s?
Explaining Crime Trends
Some of the important critical
factors that have been used to
explain the puzzle of crime rate
trends





Age
The economy
Social malaise
Guns
Abortion





Gangs
Drugs
Social-legal change
Justice Policy
Crime Opportunities
The Future of the
Uniform Crime Reports
The National Incident-Based Reporting System (NIBRS):

Maintained by the F.B.I. and the B.J.S.

Twenty-two crime categories (includes forty-six offense types).

More information on each crime in each category and describes
victims, offenders, arrestees, and circumstances of crimes.

Data compiled based on incidents, not arrests.

Twenty-two states have implemented NIBRS (twelve are in the
process).
Advantages of NIBRS

Incident based reporting which include expanded crime characteristics, i.e.,
victim, offender, and circumstances of the offense. Elimination of the
“hierarchy rule.”

Expanded offense reporting, i.e., more crime categories/classifications.

New offense definitions.

Greater specificity of data.

Includes crimes against society as well as computer crime.

Better statistical analysis between many variables – gives the ability to link
information about many aspects of a crime to the crime incident.
Question
After reviewing the limitations of the
Uniform Crime Report,
how do these limitations affect
“crime rate” as a dependent variable?