Chapter 6
Comparative Politics: Structures and Choices 2e
By Lowell Barrington
Legislatures and Executives
Learning Objectives
 Identify the main tasks of a legislative branch.
 Identify the main tasks of a political executive.
 Discuss the main features, advantages, and
disadvantages of a parliamentary system, a
presidential system, and a semi-presidential
system.
 Describe the executive and legislative
arrangements in the TIC cases.
PARLIAMENTARY
SYSTEMS
■
Selection of the Chief Executive and
Formation of the Government
□
□
■
The head of state selects the prime minister of
the political system based on the results of
parliamentary elections
The new prime minister then forms and heads
“the government”
Separation of Head of Government and
Head of State
□
The head of state is normally weaker than the
head of government
PARLIAMENTARY
SYSTEMS
■
■
Irregular Intervals Between Elections and
Votes of Confidence
The Opposition
□
□
■
Advantages of Parliamentary Systems
□
□
■
Shadow governments
Give voters a sense of what to expect if opposition
wins the next election
Efficiency in passing legislation
Clearer accountability for voters
Disadvantages of Parliamentary Systems
□
□
Instability
Concentration of power and hasty decisions
THINK AND DISCUSS
Is the lack of fixed terms in parliamentary
systems a good thing or a bad thing?
Why?
PRESIDENTIAL SYSTEMS
■
Direct Election of the Chief Executive
□
■
■
Fixed Terms for the Executive and
Legislature
Separation of Powers and Checks &
Balances
□
■
■
Electoral college
Impeachment
Fusion of the Head of State and Head of
Government
The Potential for Divided Government
PRESIDENTIAL SYSTEMS
■
Advantages of Presidential Systems
□
□
■
A check on the “majority rule” aspect of
legislatures
A national mandate
Disadvantages of Presidential Systems
□
□
□
The difficulty of removing an unpopular
president.
The propensity for gridlock
Creeping authoritarianism
SEMIPRESIDENTIAL
SYSTEMS
■
Combine Basic Characteristics of Parliamentary
and Presidential Systems
■
Advantages of Semipresidential Systems
□
□
□
■
Providing cover for the president
The ability to remove unpopular prime ministers with the
stability of fixed terms
Additional checks and balances
Disadvantages of Semipresidential Systems
□
□
Confusion about accountability
Confusion and inefficiency in the legislative process
LEGISLATURES
■
Tasks of Legislatures
□
□
□
□
□
Legislating
Authorizing Government Spending
Constituency Service/Omsbuds Activities
Selection, Approval, and Removal of
Government Officials
Oversight of the Executive
OTHER ASPECTS OF
LEGISLATURES
■
■
■
■
Number of Members
Length of Terms
Unicameral and Bicameral Legislatures
The Power of Legislative Committees
□
□
Standing committees
Ad hoc committees
THE EXECUTIVE
■
Domestic Politics Tasks of Executives
□
Implementing Policies and Supervising the
Bureaucracy

□
■
Cabinet
Coordinating Policy Development and Budgets
Foreign Policy Tasks of Executives
□
Leads the state in matters of foreign affairs,
engaging in diplomatic efforts, treaty negotiations,
and decisions about the use of military force.
THINK AND DISCUSS
What is the most important power
common to political executives?
Why is it so important?
Topic in Countries
 The United Kingdom
 Considered the model of parliamentary democracy;
prime minister is head of government; the monarch is
head of state but has little real power
 House of Commons is center of legislative power;
parliamentary supremacy concept; prime minister
usually has a sizeable majority in Commons
 Prime minister is the chief executive and most
important political figure
Topic in Countries
 Germany
 German parliamentary system disperses central
government power and limits executive authority;
chancellor is head of government; weak president is
head of state
 Legislature is Bicameral; the make-up of the
Bundestag (lower house) determines the chancellor;
Bundesrat (the upper house) has a great deal of
power
 Chancellor has the real power; president is seen as
generally ceremonial and “above politics”
Topic in Countries
 India
 Parliamentary and federal, but strong central
government; prime minister is head of government;
the president is head of state but has limited powers
 Legislature is bicameral; Lok Sabha (lower house) is
somewhat more important than the Rajya Sabha
(upper house), but protests in the Lok Sabha that
delay legislation are common
 Prime minister is the head of the government and
exercises mostly formal rather than real powers
Topic in Countries
 Mexico
 Prior to liberalization, few real checks on president’s
power; today, legislature functions as a significant
check on the president
 The Congress is bicameral (Chamber of Deputies and
Senate); most bills must pass both houses
 President used to dominate the system; today,
bargaining and compromise are needed
Topic in Countries
 Brazil
 In theory, the president is powerful; in practice, the
legislature is so divided that presidents struggle to
pass legislation
 Bicameral legislature; uses its power to oversee the
executive and judiciary
 The president has broad executive powers but also
can issue “provisional measures” with the force of
law; unlike in Mexico, the president can be reelected
IN THEORY AND PRACTICE
BRAZIL AND THEORIES ABOUT
PRESIDENTIAL SYSTEMS
■
Juan Linz saw parliamentary systems as
superior to presidential ones
□
□
■
Drew on his experiences observing countries like Brazil
Linz saw presidential systems as too rigid “zero-sum”
Brazil’s system has been far from perfect
□
□
But, Brazil tried a parliamentary system in the past
without success
Corruption remains a problem, but corrupt leaders like
former President Collar were removed constitutionally
Topic in Countries
 Nigeria
 Presidential system since 1979; presidents must have
multi-regional support to be elected
 Legislature is bicameral (House of Representatives
and Senate); president’s party controls both houses
so potential to check presidential power goes
unrealized
 Powerful president; electoral rules for the president
and rules for the make-up of the cabinet produce a
national, rather than regional executive
IN THEORY AND PRACTICE
NIGERIA AND THEORIES ABOUT
PRESIDENTIAL SYSTEMS
■
Donald Horowitz Criticized Linz’s Portrayal
of Presidential Systems
□
□
■
Horowitz also argued that parliamentary systems did
not work in many African and Asian cases
Key is to design a presidential system correctly
Nigeria System Has Been Far From Perfect
□
□
Did design the presidential system to foster unity
Ultimately, Nigeria shows that both parliamentary
and presidential systems struggle when economic
and social structures create instability
THINK AND DISCUSS
The debates over the merits and limitations of
presidential and parliamentary systems are presented
in the context of developing countries with relatively
new democracies. Some scholars have raised similar
questions about countries like the United States. How
different would American politics be if the United
States had a parliamentary system instead of a
presidential one?
Topic in Countries
 Russia
 From 1993 to 2008, president much more powerful
than prime minister; with Putin as prime minister,
balance has shifted
 Bicameral legislature; the Duma (lower house) is the
more powerful; controlled by Putin’s party
 Prime minister position had been unstable, serving at
the pleasure of the president; this changed with Putin
as P.M.
Topic in Countries
 China
 As official government positions took on greater
importance after Deng Xiaoping, positions of premier and,
especially, president became central to the governing of
China
 Unicameral legislature (National People’s Congress);
traditionally, it simply rubber-stamped executive policies;
officially selects the president and confirms the premier
 President formulates foreign policy; premier is seen as
having more say over domestic policy; President Hu Jintao
seen as China’s paramount leader
Topic in Countries
 Iran
 Is presidential because of directly elected president
and the lack of a prime minister responsible to the
Majles; but, Supreme Leader has the real authority
 Unicameral legislature (Majles); candidates must be
approved by Council of Guardians; many pro-reform
candidates prevented from running
 Dual executive, with the Supreme Leader being much
more important than the president
IN THEORY AND PRACTICE
IRAN AND THE THEORY OF
“GOING PUBLIC”
■
Theory of “Going Public”
□
□
■
Proposed by Sam Kernell
Highlight’s the president’s use of media to push certain
policies
Can It Apply to a Nondemocratic Case Like
Iran?
□
□
Iran’s president more constrained than in a democracy
But former President Khatami took his message to the
people; it helped him push forward, somewhat, with
reforms
THINK AND DISCUSS
Which of the countries examined in
the TIC sections have the most
interesting relations between the
executive and legislative branches?
Why?