Childhood and Adolescence: Voyages in Development, Second Edition, Spencer A. Rathus
Chapter 16
Chapter 16
Adolescence:
Social and Emotional Development
Childhood and Adolescence: Voyages in Development, Second Edition, Spencer A. Rathus
Chapter 16
Development of Identity
and the Self-Concept
“Who Am I?”
(And Who Else?)
Childhood and Adolescence: Voyages in Development, Second Edition, Spencer A. Rathus
Chapter 16
What Does Erikson Have to Say About the
Development of Identity During Adolescence?
• Identity versus Identity diffusion
– Primary task: develop ego integrity
• Psychological moratorium
– Experimental period
• Identity Crisis
– Successful resolution is understanding who you are and what you
stand for
Childhood and Adolescence: Voyages in Development, Second Edition, Spencer A. Rathus
Chapter 16
What Are Marcia’s “Identity Statuses”?
• Four statues based on two dimensions
– Exploration – active questioning alternatives in search of goals
– Commitment – stable investment in goals
• Identity diffusion
– Low exploration and commitment
• Foreclosure
– Low exploration; high commitment
• Moratorium
– High exploration; low commitment
• Identity achievement
– High exploration and commitment
Childhood and Adolescence: Voyages in Development, Second Edition, Spencer A. Rathus
Chapter 16
Ethnicity and Development of Identity
• Development of self-identity is more complex for ethnic minorities
– Need to assimilate two sets of values – dominant and minority
– Prejudice and discrimination
– Scarcity of role models
• Stages of ethnic identity development
– Unexamined ethnic identity (foreclosed state)
– Ethnic identity search (moratorium state)
– Achieved ethnic identity
Childhood and Adolescence: Voyages in Development, Second Edition, Spencer A. Rathus
Chapter 16
Gender Roles and Development of Identity
• Erikson concluded
– Career matters were more important to men
– Relationships were more important to women
• As a result men developed identity before intimacy while women
developed intimacy before identity
• Research contradicts this and suggests men and women are
equally concerned about career
– Women continue to integrate family and career plans
Childhood and Adolescence: Voyages in Development, Second Edition, Spencer A. Rathus
Chapter 16
How Does Self-Concept Develop During Adolescence?
• Self-descriptions
– As children, focus on physical characteristics and actions
– As adolescence, incorporate distinct and enduring personality traits
• Self-descriptions become more differentiated
– With formal-operational skills, able to integrate contradictory
elements
Childhood and Adolescence: Voyages in Development, Second Edition, Spencer A. Rathus
Chapter 16
What Happens to Self-Esteem During Adolescence?
• In early adolescence, self-esteem declines
– Disparity between ideal and real self
• From age 13, self-esteem gradually improves
– May adjust ideas about ideal self
– May become less self-critical
• Emotional support from family and peers is important
– Initially, family support more important
– By late adolescence, peer support more important
Childhood and Adolescence: Voyages in Development, Second Edition, Spencer A. Rathus
Chapter 16
Relationships with Parents
and Peers
Childhood and Adolescence: Voyages in Development, Second Edition, Spencer A. Rathus
Chapter 16
How Do Relationships With One’s Parents and Peers Change
During the Course of the Teenage Years?
• Relationship with parents
– Time spent with family decreases during adolescence
• Boys tend to spend more time alone
• Girls tend to spend more time with friends
– More time spent with mother
• More conflicts but also more support
– Remaining close to family
• More self-reliant and independence, higher self-esteem and better
school performance
– Conflicts are more frequent
• Based on issues of control
Childhood and Adolescence: Voyages in Development, Second Edition, Spencer A. Rathus
Chapter 16
How Do Relationships With One’s Parents and Peers Change
During the Course of the Teenage Years?
• Parenting Styles
– Authoritative parenting
• Teens show more competent behavior than other groups
• More self-reliant, do better in school
• Better mental health, lowest incidence of problems and misconduct
Childhood and Adolescence: Voyages in Development, Second Edition, Spencer A. Rathus
Chapter 16
How Do Relationships With One’s Parents and Peers Change
During the Course of the Teenage Years?
• Relationship with peers
– Role of peers increases throughout adolescence
• Friendships
– More friends than younger children
– One of two “best friends”
– Based on acceptance, intimate self-disclosure and mutual
understanding
– Typically same age, race, and sex
• Friendship contributes to
– Positive self-concept and psychological adjustment
Childhood and Adolescence: Voyages in Development, Second Edition, Spencer A. Rathus
Chapter 16
Ethnicity, Sex and Adolescent Friendships
• Children choose friends from their ethnic group
– European American female teens report support from friends
– African American, male and female, both report support from friends
• Ethnic stressors may push minority teens to seek support
• Intimacy and closeness more central to girls’ friendships
– Adolescent girls report friendships as more important than boys do
• Girls’ friendship networks are smaller and more exclusive
– Girls tend to participate in unstructured activities
– Boys engage in organized group activities
Childhood and Adolescence: Voyages in Development, Second Edition, Spencer A. Rathus
Chapter 16
What Kind of Adolescent Peer Groups Are There?
• Cliques
– 5 to 10 people who hang around together
– Shared activities and confidences
• Crowds
– Larger groups who do not spend much time together
– Defined by activity or attitude of group
• Adolescent peer groups
– Spend considerable time together
– Function with little or no adult control
– May include teens of other sex
Childhood and Adolescence: Voyages in Development, Second Edition, Spencer A. Rathus
Chapter 16
When Do Romantic Relationships Develop?
• Begin in early to middle adolescence
• Sequence of dating
–
–
–
–
Putting oneself in situations with peers of other sex
Group activities that include peers of other sex
Group dating
Two-person dating
• Dating in early adolescence
– Casual and short-lived
• Dating in later adolescence
– More stable and committed
Childhood and Adolescence: Voyages in Development, Second Edition, Spencer A. Rathus
Chapter 16
How Much Influence Do Peers Have On Each Other?
• Peer pressure peaks during mid-adolescence
– Peers provide standard for behaviors
– Peers provide support
• Adolescents are influenced by both parents and peers
– Peer influence styles and taste
– Parent influence moral principles and future goals
Childhood and Adolescence: Voyages in Development, Second Edition, Spencer A. Rathus
Chapter 16
What Are Some Patterns of Sexual Behavior in Adolescence?
• Masturbation
– Most common sexual outlet for teens
– Nearly universal among male teens, less among female teens
• Sexual Orientation
– Sexually attracted to, and interested in forming a relationship
• with people of other sex – Heterosexual
• with people of same sex – Homosexual
• with people of either sex – Bisexual
– One may engage in sexual activity outside of sexual orientation
Childhood and Adolescence: Voyages in Development, Second Edition, Spencer A. Rathus
Chapter 16
Homosexual Sexual Orientation
• Stages of sexual identity for gay and lesbians
–
–
–
–
Attraction to members of same sex
Self-labeling as gay or lesbian
Sexual contact with members of same sex
Disclosure of sexual orientation to others/coming out
• Depression and suicide - higher among gay youth
Childhood and Adolescence: Voyages in Development, Second Edition, Spencer A. Rathus
Chapter 16
Why Do Some Teenagers Initiate Sexual Activity at
an Early Age, While Others Wait Until Later?
• High school students
– Since 90’s, gradual decline in %age engage in sexual intercourse
– Males more likely than girls to be sexually active
• Effects of puberty
– Early onset puberty – earlier sexual activity
• Parental influences
– Close relationship with parents – less early sexual activity
• Peer influences
– Predictor of sexual activity
• Sexual activity of best friend
Childhood and Adolescence: Voyages in Development, Second Edition, Spencer A. Rathus
Chapter 16
Figure 16.1 Percentage of Students in Grades 9-12 Who Report Ever Having Had
Childhood and Adolescence: Voyages in Development, Second Edition, Spencer A. Rathus
Chapter 16
In This Cultural Setting, Why Do Teenage Girls
Become Pregnant?
•
•
•
•
•
Receive little advice about sexuality
Failure to use contraception
Use pregnancy to achieve intimacy, demonstrate rebellion
Uneducated about reproduction and contraception
Half of pregnant teens will get an abortion
– Most teen moms will be single moms
Childhood and Adolescence: Voyages in Development, Second Edition, Spencer A. Rathus
Chapter 16
Figure 16.2 Percentage of Sexually Active Students in Grades 9-12 Who Report
Childhood and Adolescence: Voyages in Development, Second Edition, Spencer A. Rathus
Chapter 16
Figure 16.3 Trends in Pregnancy and Birthrates Among Women, Age 15-19, in the
United States and Other Developed Nations
Childhood and Adolescence: Voyages in Development, Second Edition, Spencer A. Rathus
Chapter 16
What Are the Consequences of Teenage Pregnancy?
• Consequences for pregnant teen
– More likely to experience medical complications
– Less likely to complete education
– Lower salaries
• Consequences for teen father
– Lower grades in school than peers
– Enter workforce at earlier age
• Consequences for children of teen mom
– Lower cognitive functions
– More behavioral, emotional problems
– More likely to become teen parent
Childhood and Adolescence: Voyages in Development, Second Edition, Spencer A. Rathus
Chapter 16
Preventing Teenage Pregnancy
• Sex education programs
• Successful programs
– Increase knowledge about sexuality
– Delay onset of sexual activity
Childhood and Adolescence: Voyages in Development, Second Edition, Spencer A. Rathus
Chapter 16
What Is Juvenile Delinquency?
• Illegal activities committed by child or adolescent
– Some activities are illegal only if committed by minors
• Status offenses
• Ethnicity
– Factors for overrepresentation of African American youth in
juvenile justice system
• Racial bias
• Economic factors
Childhood and Adolescence: Voyages in Development, Second Edition, Spencer A. Rathus
Chapter 16
What Are the Sex Differences in Delinquent Behavior?
• Boys more likely to engage in delinquent behaviors
• Boys commit more crimes of violence
– Girls commit more status offenses
• More girls are likely to be arrested for being runaways
– More runaways
– Double standard
Childhood and Adolescence: Voyages in Development, Second Edition, Spencer A. Rathus
Chapter 16
Who Is Most Likely to Engage in Delinquent Behavior?
• Many risk factors and causality is not clear
–
–
–
–
–
–
Poor school performance
Delinquent friends, substance abuse
Early aggressive or hyperactive behaviors
Low verbal IQ, immature moral reasoning
Low self-esteem and impulsivity
Parents and/or siblings have been involved in antisocial behaviors
• Prevention and Treatment
– Focus on individual offender
– Focus on systems
– Early childhood intervention programs
Childhood and Adolescence: Voyages in Development, Second Edition, Spencer A. Rathus
Chapter 16
How Many Adolescents Commit Suicide? Why?
• Among older teens – suicide is 3rd or 4th leading cause of death
• Risk factors for suicide
–
–
–
–
Depression and hopelessness
Confusion about self, interpersonal problems
Impulsiveness, emotional instability
Stressful life events
• Origins of suicide
– Social problems
• Less capable of solving problems
– Genetics
• Suicide and psychological problems runs in families
Childhood and Adolescence: Voyages in Development, Second Edition, Spencer A. Rathus
Chapter 16
How Do We Define Adulthood?
• Many different criterion for adulthood
– Historically – marriage
– Today – Independent from parents
• Financial and residence
Childhood and Adolescence: Voyages in Development, Second Edition, Spencer A. Rathus
Chapter 16
How Do We Define Emerging Adulthood?
• Distinct period – straddles 18 through 25
– Extended period for exploration
– Appear in affluent societies
• Erikson’s moratorium
– Extended search for identity
Childhood and Adolescence: Voyages in Development, Second Edition, Spencer A. Rathus
Chapter 16
Erikson’s Stages of Adulthood?
• Intimacy vs Isolation
• Generativity vs Stagnation
• Integrity vs Despair