Artificial Mucsles and
Electroactive Polymers
Dariush Semnani Fatemeh Fereydonian Matin Mashayekhi
Isfahan University of Technology
Electro-active polymers: current capabilities and
challenges[52,55]
Artificial Muscles using Electroactive Polymers (EAP):
Capabilities, Challenges and Potential[55]
Electronic EAP
EAP type
Electronic EAP
Advantages
-Can operate in room
condition for a long time
-rapid response(msec
levels)
-can hold strain under dc
activation
-induce relatively large
actuation forces
-Exhibits high mechanical
energy density.
Disadvantages
-require high voltages(150MV/m).
-require compromise between strain
and stress,where≥300% was
demonstrated to have a relatively low
actuation forces.
-Glass transition tempreture is
inadequate for low-tempereture
actuation tasks and in the case of
ferroelectric EAP,high tempreture
application ara limited by curie
tempreture
-mostly,producting a monopolar
actuation independed of the voltage
polarity due to associated
electrostriction effect.
Electronic EAP
1-Ferroelectric polymers
principle
Polymers th at
exhibit
nonccntrosymmetric
sustained shape in
response to electric
field.some of these
polymers have
spontaneous elecrtic
polarization making
them
ferroelectric.recent
intruduction of
electron radiation in
p(vdf-trfe)copo;ymer
with defects in their
crystalline structure
dramatically
increased the
induced strain.
advantage
-induce relatively
large strain(5%)
-offer high
mechanical energy
density resulting
from the relatively
high elastic modulus
-permit ac switching
with little generated
heat
-rapid response
(msec levels)
disadvantage
-require high
voltage(150MV/m).re
cent development
allows of magnitude
less voltage.
-difficalt to mass
product
-making thin
multilayers is still a
challenge and
sensitive to defect.
-high tempreture
applications are
limited by the curie
tempreture
Reported type
-electron – radiated
p(VDF-TrFE)
-P(VDF-TrFE-CTFE)CTFE disrupt the
order in place of the
irradiation.
-P(VDFTrFE)Terpolymers
Enhancement of Electrical Properties of Ferroelectric
Polymers by Polyaniline Nanofibers with Controllable
Conductivities[34]
We present here nanocomposites of polyaniline
nanofibers embedded in a vinylidene fluoride
and trifluoroethylene [P(VDF-TrFE)]
copolymer matrix. P(VDF-TrFE)s are the most
thoroughly studied polymeric ferroelectrics
and were the first example of a polymer with
a well-defined ferroelectric transition
behavior.
All-Polymer Electromechanical Systems Consisting of
Electrostrictive Poly(vinylidene fluoridetrifluoroethylene) and Conductive Polyaniline [31]
ABSTRACT: The low elastic modulus and the ability to
withstand high strain without failure make the
conducting polymer attractive for a wide range of
acoustic applications based on high-strain electroactive
polymers. In this article, we examine the electric and
electromechanical performance of all-polymer
electromechanical systems, fabricated by painting
conductive polyaniline (PANI) doped with camphor
sulfonic acid (HCSA) on both sides of electrostrictive
Poly(vinylidene fluoride-trifluoroethylene) (P(VDFTrFE)) copolymer films, and compare them with those
from the same copolymers with gold electrodes.
[31]
Sample Preparation
The P(VDF-TrFE) copolymer with different vinylidene
content was from Solvay and Cie of Bruxelles, Belgium.
In the present work, the content of vinylidene are 50
and 65% (mol percent), denoted as P(VDF-TrFE) 50/50
and P(VDF-TrFE) 65/35, respectively. The films were
prepared by melt-pressing powder at 225°C and then
slowly cooling it to room temperature. The final film
thickness was about 30 mm. Two types of films were
prepared for the investigation of irradiated films:
unstretched and stretched films.
[31]
• To prepare conductive polymer electrodes, the
solution of PANI/HCSA was coated on both sides of
the P(VDF-TrFE) film by either printing or stamping
with a mask.
• Gold electroded P(VDF-TrFE) films were also
prepared by sputting Au on opposing faces of the
films. The thickness of the gold layer is about 500 Å.
[31]
Nucleation of electroactive β-phase poly(vinilidene fluoride)
with CoFe2O4 and NiFe2O4 nanofillers: a new method
for the preparation of multiferroic nanocomposites[44]
Abstract: Multiferroic and magnetoelectric materials show
enormous potential for technological developments.
Multiferroic composites are more attractive for
applications due to their enhanced properties with respect
to single-phase multiferroic materials. In this paper we
report on the nucleation of the electroactive β-phase of
poly(vinylidene fluoride), PVDF, by the addition of
CoFe2O4 and NiFe2O4 nanoparticles in order toprepare
poly(vinylidene fluoride)/ferrite nanocomposite for
multiferroic and magnetoelectric applications,. The
dispersed ferrite nanofiller particles strongly enhance the
nucleation of the β-phase of the polymer matrix.
Review of some lesser-known applications
of piezoelectric and pyroelectric polymers[45]
The piezoelectric effect was first observed in
polyvinylidene fluoride polymer (PVDF) in
1969, and the pyroelectric effect was found
several years later. A number of additional
ferroelectric polymers have been discovered
since that time including the copolymer PVDF
with trifluoroethylene (P(VDF-TrFE)), and the
odd-numbered nylons.
Electronic EAP
2- Dielectric EAP or (Electroststically stricted polymer(
principle
advantage
Coulomb forces
between the
electrodes squeeze
the material,causing
it to expand in the
plane of the
electrodes.when the
stiffness is low a thin
film can be shown to
stretch 200-380%.
-large displacements
reaching levels of
200-380%strain area
-rapid
response(msec
levels)
-inexpensive to
produce
disadvantage
-require high
voltage(150MV/m)
Reported type
-silicone
-polyurtane
-obtaining large
displacements
compromises the
actuation forces
-require prestrain
-polyacrylate
[2]
[2]
[2] •
Fundamental research on polymer
material as artificial muscle [42]
Until now, the conducting polymer actuator (CPA), the ionic
conductive polymer actuator (ICPA), and the dielectric
elastomer actuator (DEA) have been proposed as EAP
actuators according to their electric physicality.
The CPA can be driven by a low voltage (under 2 V), and a
high output force and a high strain ratio can be realized.
The ICPA consist of a thin polymer membrane with metal
electrodes plated on both surfaces which can be driven
by a low voltage (under 3 V). Both CPA and ICPA have a
slow reaction time, and the electrochemical reaction
needs a solvent that prevents the movement of the
actuator in three-dimensional space.
[42]
a DEA such as silicon rubber, urethane rubber, and acrylic
form fi lm can work as an actuator using the phenomenon
of electrostriction, which causes the strain in a dielectric
substance by impressing the electric field.
A DEA can produce a high-strain response, a high response
time, and a high output force, and can perform without
the solvent which is needed by the CPA and ICPA.
A high voltage of about 4000 V is impressed on the fi lm
Stability analysis of dielectric
elastomer film actuator[47]
Dielectric elastomers, featuring super large
deformation (380%), high elastic energy density
(3.4 J/g), high efficiency, high responsive speed,
good reliability and durability, are the most
promising electroactive polymer material for
actuators.
This paper discusses the stability analysis methods of
dielectric elastomer by applying the elastic strain
energy function with two material constants. The
results show that for dielectric material with larger
dimensionless constant k, its stability performance
is higher.
The Transverse Strain Response of Electroactive
Polymer Actuators[51]
In this work, a transverse strain measurement system
based on a ZYGO laser Doppler interferometer has
been developed. This system can measure transverse
strain responses of polymer actuators of different
sizes over a wide displacement and frequency range.
By using this system, we have investigated the
electric-field-induced strains of electroactive polymer
actuators fabricated from silicone films.
[51]
Electromechanical
Response of
Nanostructured
Polymer Systems
with no Mechanical
Pre-Strain[53]
Here, we describe a route to
dielectric elastomers with no
(0%) pre-strain by using
electroactive nanostructured
polymers (ENPs) with tunable
properties.
PERFORMANCE OF MULTI-LAYER ELECTROACTIVE
POLYMER ACTUATORS USED FOR ACTIVE
VIBRATION CONTROL [54]
Our experimental investigation of the transverse strain
response of dielectric elastomers has now been extended
to study the transverse strain responses of multi-layer
elastomer actuators fabricated from polyurethane
films.
Electronic EAP
3- Liquid crystal elastomers
principle
advantage
-Exhibit spontaneous -when heated it
ferroelectricity
induces large stress
and strain(200kpa
-contracts when
and 45%respectvely)
heated offering noelectroactive
-require much lower
excitation
field than
ferroelectricsand
dielectric EAP
(1.5MV/m,4%strain).
-fast response(≤133
HZ
disadvantage
-low electro-strictive
response
Reported type
-polyacrylate
-polysiloxane
-slow response
-Hysteresis
Electronic EAP
4- Electrostrictive graft elastomers
principle
Electric field causes
molecular alignment
of the pendant group
made of graft
crystalline elastomers
that are attached to
the backbone
advantage
-strain levels of5%
-relatively large force
-cheaper to produce
-rapid response(msec
levels)
disadvantage
-require high
voltage(150MV/m)
Reported type
Copolymer
poly(vinylidenefluoridetrifluoroethylene
Ionic EAP
EAP type
Ionic EAP
Advantages
Disadvantages
-Produce large bending
displacment
-except cps and CNT,ionic EAP don’t
hold strain under dc voltage
-require low voltage
-slow response(fraction of a second)
-natural bi-directional
actuation that dependens
on the voltage polarity
-bending EAPs induce a relatively low
actuation forces
- Some ionic EAP like
conducting polymers have
a unique capability of
bistability
-except CPs,it is difficalt to produce a
consistent material(particulary IPMC)
-in aqueous system the material
sustain electrolysisat≥1.23v
-need an for electrolyte and
encapsulation
-low electromacanial coupling
efficiency
Ionic EAP
1-Ionic polymer Metal polymers(IPMC)
principle
THE base polymer
provides channels for
mobility of positive
ions in a fixed
network of negative
ions on
interconnected
clusters.electrostatic
forces and mobile
cations are
responsible for the
bending.
advantage
-Require low
voltage(1-5v)
-provide significant
bending
disadvantage
-low frequency
response(in the
range of 1HZ)
-Extremely sensitive
to dehydration
-dc causes
permanent
deformation
-subject to hydrolysis
above 1.23v.
-displacement drift
under dc voltage
Reported type
Base polymer---made by
DNafion(perfluorosul
fonate upont)
Flemion(perfluoroca
boxylate)
Cations:
Tetra-nbutylammonium
Metal:pt and gold
“Equivalent” Electromechanical Coefficient for IPMC
Actuator Design Based on Equivalent Bimorph
Beam Theory[48]
Ionic Polymer Metal Composites (IPMCs) along with
ionic gels and conductive polymers belong to the class
of ionic electroactive polymer (EAP) systems that can
be used for actuation and sensing
There are several ionic polymer membranes used in
IPMCs: Nafion® (E. I. Du Pont de Nemours and
Company, Inc. 0.18 mm thick, 1,100 g mol−1 of
equivalent weight) most widely used one with
backbone ionomer perfluoro-sulfonate, Flemion®
(Asahi Glass, 0.14 mm thick, 690 g mol−1 of equivalent
weight) with the perfluoro-carboxylate group, and
rarely Aciplex® (Asahi Chemical)
[48]
[48]
Design and test of IPMC artificial
muscle microgripper[49]
Ionic EAP
2-Conductive polymers
principle
Material that swell in
response to an
applied voltage as a
result of oxidation or
reduction,depending
on the polarity
ausing insretion or
deinsertion of
(possibly
solvated)ionc.
advantage
-require relatively
low voltage
-induce relatively
large force
-extensive body of
knowledge
-biologically
compatible
disadvantage
-exhibit slow
deterioration under
cyclic actuation
-suffer fatigue after
repeated activation.
-slow response(≤40
Hz)
Reported type
Polypyrrole
Polyethylenedioxythi
Ophene
Polyaniline
polythiophenes
Speed and strain of polypyrrole actuators: dependence
on cation hydration number [46]
The aim was to clarify the role of cations in the electrolyte
on the speed of response and on the strain of the film.
[46]
A flexible strain sensor from polypyrrole-coated
fabrics[5]
Experimental
1-A typical procedure for preparation of PPy-coated fabrics by CVD is as follows:
plain knitted fabric of 83% Tactel blended with 17% (40 denier) Lycra
2- A typical procedure for preparation of PPy-coated fabrics by solution
polymerization is as follows:
A flexible strain
sensor from
polypyrrolecoated fabrics[5]
Electrospinning of Nanomaterials and Applications in
Electronic Components and Devices[23]
2.5. Actuators
Actuators can take electrical and other energy and convert it into a mechanical
motion. However, large strain and quick response times still remain the most
important challenges in actuator design. Large strain can be obtained by enhancing
mechanical properties, and flexible electrospun fiber templates can be used to
improve strain. This is because a large amount of electrolyte can be localized in the
porous structure of electrospun fiber mats.
2.5.1. Electrospun Fibers Coated with Conductive Polymers
Among the many materials suitable for actuators, conducting polymers have received
considerable attention as promising candidates for actuator design, owing to their
moderately high actuation strain at low operational voltages below 1 V . Despite
being good candidates for designing actuators, the brittleness and poor elongation
at break of conducting polymers limit their active applicability in devices.
An electrospun polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) nanofiber mat containing a flexible
conducting polymer actuator, prepared by in situ polymerization of aniline has
been reported.
[23]
[23]
2.5.2. Porous Electrospun Fiber Mats Enhance Ion Mobility
Nanofiber mats have been prepared by electrospinning a sulfonated
tetrafluoroethylenebased fluoropolymer–copolymer (NafionTM.103
When these mats are saturated with ionic liquids they show
approximately three-fold improvement in ionic conductivity
compared to conventional film-type membranes. Also these
fabricated fiber mat-based transducers showed higher strain speed of
1.34% per second, which is 52% faster than the film-based actuators
(Fig. 9).
[43] Correlation of capacitance and actuation
in ionomeric polymer transducers
In thi s paper we discuss a series of experiments that
characterize the electromechanical actuation response of
three families of ionomers: Nafion (a product of DuPont),
BPSH (sulfonated npoly(arylene ether sulfone)) and PATS
(poly(arylene thioether sulfone)).
The strain response of the materials varies from 50 μstrain/V
to 750 μstrain/V at 1Hz.
Compared to other types of electromechanical transducers,
such as piezoelectric materials, ionomeric transducers have
the advantage of high-strain output (>1%is possible), lowvoltage operation (typically less than 5 V), and high
sensitivity in charge-sensing mode.
[43]
Optimization of Electrically Conductive Films:
Poly (3-methylthiophene) or Polypyrrole in Kapton[6]
Examples of the highest conductive hybrid films produced within
the previously referenced studies are summarized in Table I
Optimization of Electrically Conductive Films:
Poly (3-methylthiophene) or Polypyrrole in Kapton[6]
Polypyrrole nanofiber surface acoustic wave gas
sensors[30]
Polypyrrole nanofibers were synthesized through a
template-free chemical route by introducing
bipyrrole as an initiator to speed up the
polymerization of pyrrole in the presence of iron (III)
chloride (FeCl3) as the oxidizing agent.
Electrospun Poly(Lactic acid) based Conducting
Nanofibrous Networks[35]
Electrically conductive polymers are of special
interest for tissue engineering because new
technologies will require biomaterials that not
only physically support tissue growth but also
are electrically conductive, and thus able to
stimulate specific cell functions or trigger cell
responses. Common classes of organic
conductive polymers include polyacetylene,
polypyrrole, polythiophene, polyaniline (PANi),
and poly (para-phenylene vinylene). The present
research has focused on PANi as the conducting
polymer and poly(L-lactic acid) (PLLA) as the
biopolymer.
Polypyrrole-coated conductive fabrics
as a candidate for strain sensors [39]
In this paper, the fabrication of PPy-coated conductive
fabric by the method of vapor phase polymerization,
and the investigation on its strain sensing properties
are reported.
The conductive fabrics were prepared by covering a nonconductive substrate with a layer of Ppyconductive film
which was formed by vapor phase polymerization. The
typical preparation method for the PPy-coated fabrics
is as follows: 30 g FeCl3·6H2Owas mixed with 190 mL
white spirit, 40 mL water and 5 g emulsifier A.C. to
prepare a print paste. It was then printed on the
surface of the textile substrate composed of 83% Tactel
and 17% Lycra
[39]
[39]
Electrochemically controlled drug delivery based
on intrinsically conducting polymers[40]
CONDUCTING POLYMERS[38]
CONDUCTING POLYMERS[38]
Conducting polymers in biomedical
engineering [41]
[41]
[41]
Ionic EAP
3- Electro-rheological fluids(ERF)
principle
ERFs experience
dramatic viscosity
change when
subjected to electric
field causing induced
dipole moment in
the suspended
particles to form
chains along the
fueld lines
advantage
disadvantage
-viscosity control for
virtual valves
-require high voltage
-enable haptic
mechanisms with
high spatial
resolation
Reported type
Polymer particles in
fluorosilicone base
oil
Ionic EAP
4- Ionic Gels(IGL)
principle
Application of
voltage causes
movement of
hydrogen ions in or
out of the gel.the
effect is a simulation
of the chemical
analogue of reaction
with acid and
alkaline.
advantage
-potentially capable
of matching the
energy density of
biological muscles
-require low voltage
disadvantage
Reported type
Operate very slowly
it would require very
thin layers and new
type of electrodes to
become practical
Examples
include:PAMPS,Poly(v
inyl alcohol)gel with
dimethyl
sulfoxide,and
polyacrylonitrile(PAN)with
conductive fibers
Ionic EAP
5- Carbon nanotubes
principle
The carbone-carbone
bond of
nanotubes(NT)suspe
nded in an
electrolyte changes
length as aresult of
charge injection that
affects the ionic
charge balance
between the NT and
the electrolyte
advantage
-potentially provide
superior work/cycle
and mechanical
stresses
-carbon offers high
thermal stability at
high tempreture
≤1000 c
disadvantage
-expensive
-difficult to mass
product
Reported type
Single and multi –
walled carbon
nanotubes
[56]
Properties and Applications of Filled
Conductive Polymer Composites[33]
Abstract : The electrical properties of polymers filled with
different types of conducting particles are reviewed.
Following a theoretical description of a general
effective media (GEM) equation, the experimental
conductivityÈvolume fraction data for thermoplastic
filled with vanadium oxide particles as well as
thermosetting polymer composites, are Ðtted to the
equation. The calculated propertyrelated parameters in
the equation are discussed. The electrical conductivity
of the composites is combined with an extremely large
positive temperature coefficient (PTC) e†ect,
depending on the Ðller type (V2O3 or carbon black), as
well as 2Oon its distribution and volume fraction. Both
m3elting and recrystallization behaviour are
responsible for the PTC e†ect.
Morphological and Electromechanical Studies of Fibers
Coated with Electrically Conductive Polymer[36]
CONCUSIONS
This study investigates the relationship between the morphology and
electromechanical behavior of the electrically conductive fibers and analyzes
the mechanisms governing their electromechanical behavior based on
microscale observations by means of SPM, AFM with current measurement,
and SEM. The following can be concluded:
(1) The electromechanical behavior of the conductive composites depends
strongly on the microstructure of the coating layer and the material of the
substrate. On PA6 base, PPy forms a continuous layer with finer, denser, and
more uniform grains than those on the PU base. A smooth and uniform
coating and matched mechanical properties will lead to a satisfied
performance of conductive fiber sensors. The relationship between the
fractional increment in resistance, R/R0, and the applied strain is reasonably
linear, which is of practical importance in sensing applications.
(2) The variation in resistance for the PPy-coated PA6 fibers results from the
change in the dimension of the fibers. By contrast, the variation in resistance
with the applied strain for PPy-coated PU fibers is mainly attributed to the
damage on the coating layer.
Intrinsically conducting polymers for
electromagnetic interference shielding[32]
Electromagnetic interference (EMI) consists of any unwanted,
spurious, conducted, and/or radiated signals of electrical origin that
can cause unacceptable degradation of system or equipment
performance and contains components with frequencies ranging
from the lower power frequencies of 50, 60 and 400 Hz, on up to
the microwave region, as man-made or natural, be either
narrowband or broadband.
Traditional approach for EMI shielding relies on the use of metallic
materials, which supply excellent shielding effectiveness (SE).
Carbons are also used in EMI shielding applications, mainly as
conductive fillers (fibers, particles, powders, filaments, tubes) in
composite materials, due to their electrical conductivity, chemical
resistance and low density.
Intrinsically conducting polymers (ICPs) are attractive alternative
materials for EMI shielding. Since the discovery of ICPs in the late
1970s,16 EMI shielding, as well as electrostatic discharge, have
been well projected and evaluated by many early papers.
[32]
These materials combine high conductivity (as compared with carbons), ease
of processability, low density (e.g. the density of polyaniline (PANI) and
polypyrrole (PPY) are 1.1–1.3 g/cm3 35 and ca. 1.2 g/cm3 36 respectively,
far less than that of metals, such as 8.9 g/cm3 for copper) and corrosion
resistance (as compared with metals) with unique shielding mechanism of
absorption (differing from the reflection one for metals and carbons37)
which is more preferred in military applications like camouflage and
stealth technology.38 The objective of this paper is to review the past
works concerning EMI shielding with ICPs, focused mainly on PANI and
PPY. It should be emphasized that the paper is only intended to provide a
brief summary of the literature and detail, to some extent, the material
preparations, the testing protocols and the results obtained. Omissions
are inevitable due to the myriad of investigations carried out on this
subject. The organization of the rest of the paper is as follows. In the next
section the fundamentals of ICPs and the shielding theory are briefly
described. In the following two sections the EMI shielding results of PANI
and PPY respectively, are discussed in pure material or composites. Then
in the subsequent section the EMI shielding studies of some other ICPs are
presented. In the last section concluding remarks on EMI shielding with
ICPs are given.
[32]
Three-dimensional conductive constructs for Threedimensional conductive constructs for nerve
regeneration[37]
APPROACHES TO ACHIEVE SMARTER
ELECTROACTIVE MATERIALS
AND DEVICES[50]
Smart materials are a class of materials that can
significantly change their mechanical (such as shape,
stiffness, and viscosity), electric, thermal, optical,
magnetic, electromechanical or electromagnetic
properties in a predictable or controllable manner in
response to their environment.1 These materials
include piezoelectric and electrostrictive ceramics,
electroactive polymers (EAP), magnetostrictive
materials, shape-memory materials, and magnetorheologic fluids.
Actuators can be classified into two types: conventional
actuators and solid state actuators.
[50]
[50]
[50]
References
2-Dielectric Elastomer Artificial Muscle Actuators: Toward Biomimetic Motion
5- A flexible strain sensor from polypyrrole-coated fabrics
6- Optimization of Electrically Conductive Films: Poly (3-methylthiophene) or
Polypyrrole in Kapton
8- Smart fibres, fabrics and clothing
23- Electrospinning of Nanomaterials and Applications in Electronic Components
and Devices
30- Polypyrrole nanofiber surface acoustic wave gas sensors
31- All-Polymer Electromechanical Systems Consisting of Electrostrictive
Poly(vinylidene fluoride-trifluoroethylene) and Conductive Polyaniline
32- Intrinsically conducting polymers for electromagnetic interference shielding
33- Properties and Applications of Filled Conductive Polymer Composites
34- Enhancement of Electrical Properties of Ferroelectric Polymers by Polyaniline
Nanofibers with Controllable Conductivities
35- Electrospun Poly(Lactic acid) based Conducting Nanofibrous Networks
36- Morphological and Electromechanical Studies of Fibers Coated with Electrically
Conductive Polymer
37- Three-dimensional conductive constructs for Three-dimensional conductive
constructs for nerve regeneration
38- CONDUCTING POLYMERS
39- Polypyrrole-coated conductive fabrics as a candidate for strain sensors
40- Electrochemically controlled drug delivery based on intrinsically conducting
polymers
41- Conducting polymers in biomedical engineering
42-Fundamental research on polymer material as artificial muscle
43- Correlation of capacitance and actuation in ionomeric polymer transducers
44- Nucleation of electroactive β-phase poly(vinilidene fluoride) with CoFe2O4 and
NiFe2O4 nanofillers: a new method for the preparation of multiferroic
nanocomposites
45- Review of some lesser-known applications of piezoelectric and pyroelectric
polymers
46- Speed and strain of polypyrrole actuators: dependence on cation hydration
number
47- Stability analysis of dielectric elastomer film actuator
48- “Equivalent” Electromechanical Coefficient for IPMC Actuator Design Based on
Equivalent Bimorph Beam Theory
49- Design and test of IPMC artificial muscle microgripper
50- APPROACHES TO ACHIEVE SMARTER ELECTROACTIVE MATERIALS AND DEVICES
51- The Transvers e Strain Response of Electroactive Polymer Actuators
52- Electro-active polymers: current capabilities and challenges
53- Electromechanical Response of Nanostructured Polymer Systems with no
Mechanical Pre-Strain
54- PERFORMANCE OF MULTI-LAYER ELECTROACTIVE POLYMER ACTUATORS USED FOR
ACTIVE VIBRATION CONTROL
55- Artificial Muscles using Electroactive Polymers (EAP): Capabilities, Challenges and
Potential
56-