Chapter 06
Lecture and
Animation Outline
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6.1 Skeleton: Overview
A.Functions of the Skeleton
•
•
•
•
•
Support
Protection of soft body parts
Blood cell production
Storage of fats and minerals
Movement using muscles and joints
B.Anatomy of bones
• Classification of bones
a. Long – longer than they
are wide
b. Short – cube shaped
c. Flat – plate-like, with
broad surfaces
d. Irregular – varied
shapes
e. Round – circular in
shape
2.Anatomy of a long bone
a. Periosteum – tough, connective tissue covering that contains
blood vessels
b. Epiphysis – expanded portion at the ends of bones; made of
spongy bone
c. Diaphysis – portion between the epiphyses; the shaft; made of
compact bone
d. Medullary cavity – hollow portion of diaphysis containing yellow
marrow
e. Articular cartilage – layer of hyaline cartilage where bones join
together
f. Endosteum – lines the medullary cavity and the spaces of spongy
bone
g. Red bone marrow – found in spongy bone in adults; where
hematopoiesis occurs
Anatomy of a Long Bone
3.Compact bone structure
a. Osteons are made of concentric layers of
matrix, called lamellae, containing collagen
fibers and mineral salts
b. Lacunae – contain bone cells (osteocytes)
c. Central canal – contains blood vessels and
nerves
d. Canaliculi – small canals that connect lamellae
and osteocytes to blood supply and nerves
e. Perforating canals – run from the periosteum
to the central canal of each osteon
Compact bone structure
4.Spongy bone structure
a.Contains bony bars and plates called trabeculae
b.Trabeculae follow lines of stress, giving bones
strength
C.Physiology of bones
• Types of bone cells
a.Osteoprogenitor cells – unspecialized cells
b.Osteoblasts – bone forming cells
c. Osteocytes – mature bone cells
d.Osteoclasts – bone resorption
2.Bone development and growth
a. Ossification – formation of bone
1)Intramembranous ossification
a)Spongy bone forms between two sheets of fibrous
connective tissue
b)Forms bones of the skull
2)Endochondral ossification
a)Forms most bones of the human body
b)Hyaline cartilage models are replaced by spongy bone,
and then compact bone
Endochondral ossification
Bone growth and development, cont
b.Epiphyseal plate
1)Band of hyaline cartilage in the epiphyses of long
bones
2)Allows the bone to growth in length
3)Long bone growth continues until plate is ossified
c. Appositional growth – increase in bone
diameter
Animation: Bone Growth in Width
Please note that due to differing
operating systems, some animations
will not appear until the presentation is
viewed in Presentation Mode (Slide
Show view). You may see blank slides
in the “Normal” or “Slide Sorter” views.
All animations will appear after viewing
in Presentation Mode and playing each
animation. Most animations will require
the latest version of the Flash Player,
which is available at
http://get.adobe.com/flashplayer.
3.Remodeling of bones
a. Bone is continually being broken down and built up again
b. Osteoclasts remove worn cells and deposit calcium in the
blood
c. Osteoblasts remove calcium from the blood and form new
bone
d. Three important hormones regulating bone growth
1) Parathyroid hormone
2) Calcitonin
3) Growth hormone
e. Proper levels of calcium are needed to prevent osteoporosis
4.Bone repair
a. Required after it fractures (breaks)
b. Steps involved in bone repair
1)Hematoma formation
2)Fibrocartilaginous callus
3)Bony callus
4)Remodeling
c. Reduction – repair of a fracture
1)Closed reduction – re-aligning bone fragments
without surgery
2)Open reduction – surgical repair of the bone using
plates, screws, or pins
Repair of a broken bone
d.Naming of fractures
1)Complete – bone is broken through
2)Incomplete – bone is not separated into two
parts
3)Simple – does not pierce the skin
4)Compound – pierces the skin
5)Impacted – broken ends are wedged into each
other
6)Spiral – ragged break due to twisting of bone
D.Surface features of bones
6.2 Axial Skeleton
A.Introduction
• Tissues of the skeleton – compact and spongy
bone, cartilage, and dense connective tissue
• Axial skeleton
a.Lies in the midline of the body
b.Bones of the axial skeleton – skull, hyoid bone,
vertebral column, thoracic cage, and middle ear
bones
• Appendicular skeleton
a.Bones of the extremities
b.Includes the pectoral girdle, upper limbs, pelvic
girdle, and lower limbs
Major bones of the skeleton
B.Skull
•
•
Formed by the cranium and the facial bones
Sinuses - air spaces within the bones
a. Lined by mucous membranes
b. Reduce the weight of the skull
c. Give the voice a resonant sound
d. Paranasal sinuses – connected to nasal cavity
1)Maxillary
2)Frontal
3)Sphenoidal
4)Ethmoidal
e. Mastoid sinuses – connected to middle ear
Sagittal section of the skull
C.Bones of the cranium
• Protects the brain
• Sutures – immovable joints between cranial bones
• Fontanels – membranous regions in newborns where cranial
bones have not yet fused together
• Composed of eight bones
a. Frontal bone (1)
b. Parietal bones (2)
c. Occipital bone (1)
1)Foramen magnum
2)Occipital condyles
Bones of the cranium, cont
d. Temporal bones (2)
1)External acoustic meatus
2)Mandibular fossa
3)Mastoid process
4)Styloid process
5)Zygomatic process
e. Sphenoid bone (1)
1)Sella turcica
f. Ethmoid bone (1)
1)Crista galli
2)Cribriform plate
3)Perpendicular plate
4)Superior and middle nasal conchae
Skull Anatomy
Skull Anatomy
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
D.Bones of the face
Maxillae (2)
a. Alveolar process
b. Palatine process
Palatine bones (2)
Zygomatic bones (2)
a. Temporal process
b. Zygomatic arch
Lacrimal bones (2)
Nasal bones (2)
Vomer bone (1)
Inferior nasal conchae (2)
Mandible (1)
a. Mandibular condyle
b. Coronoid process
c. Alveolar process
Skull Anatomy
Skull Anatomy
E.Hyoid Bone
• Superior to larynx
• Only bone in the body
that does not
articulate with
another bone
• Anchors the tongue
• Site of attachment for
muscles associated
with swallowing
F.Vertebral Column (Spine)
• Functions
a.Supports rib cage
b.Serves as a point of attachment for the pelvic girdle
c. Protects the spinal cord
• Consists of a series of separate bones named
for their location
a.Seven cervical (neck)
b.Twelve thoracic (chest)
c. Five lumbar (lower back)
d.Five sacral (fused)
e.Three to five coccygeal (fused)
Curvatures of the Spine
Vertebral Column, cont
3. Normal curvatures
a.Cervical and lumbar – convex anteriorly
b.Thoracic and sacral – concave anteriorly
c. Provide support and balance
4. Abnormalities
a.Lordosis – exaggerated lumbar curvature
b.Kyphosis – increased roundness of the thoracic
curvature
c. Scoliosis – abnormal lateral curvature that occurs
most often in the thoracic region
Abnormal Vertebral Curvatures
Vertebral Column, cont
5. Intervertebral Disks
a.Fibrocartilage pads between the bodies of the
vertebrae
b.Prevent vertebrae from grinding against one
another
c. Absorb shock
d.Allow motion between vertebrae
e.Allows space for the exit of spinal nerves from the
spinal cord through intervertebral foramina
f. Can slip or rupture
6.General vertebrae structure
a. Body – anterior portion
b.Vertebral foramen – canal for spinal cord
c. Bony projections serve as sites for muscle
attachment
1)Spinous process (spine) – posterior projection
2)Transverse processes – lateral projections
d.Vertebral arch – lamina and pedicle
e.Superior and inferior articulating processes
with vertebra above and below
Vertebrae
7.Characteristics of specific vertebrae
a. Cervical vertebrae
1) Have transverse foramina and short spines
2) Atlas (C1) – supports the head; allows head movement up
and down
3) Axis (C2) - serves as a pivot for the atlas; allows head
movement from side to side
b. Thoracic vertebrae – have long, slender spines and costal
facets
c. Lumbar vertebrae – have massive bodies and square spines
d. Sacrum – fused sacral vertebrae; forms posterior wall of the
pelvic cavity
e. Coccyx – formed from a fusion of three to five vertebrae
Atlas and axis
G.The rib cage
• Protects the heart and lungs, yet is flexible
• Provides support for the bones of the pectoral
girdle
• The ribs
a.Twelve pair that connect to the thoracic vertebrae
b.True ribs – upper seven pairs connect directly to the
sternum by costal cartilages (vertebrosternal)
c. False ribs – next five pair that attach indirectly to the
sternum or not at all
1)Ribs 8,9,10 – vertebrochondral
2)Ribs 11,12 – vertebral or floating ribs
The rib cage, cont
4.The sternum
a.Flat, blade-shaped bone
b.Composed of three bones that fuse – Manubrium,
Body, and Xiphoid process
c. Provides anatomical reference points for
healthcare professionals
The Rib Cage
Chapter 06
Lecture and
Animation Outline
To run the animations you must be in Slideshow View. Use the
buttons on the animation to play, pause, and turn audio/text on or
off.
Please Note: Once you have used any of the animation functions
(such as Play or Pause), you must first click on the slide’s
background before you can advance to the next slide.
See separate PowerPoint slides for all figures and tables preinserted into PowerPoint without notes and animations.
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
6.1 Skeleton: Overview
A.Functions of the Skeleton
•
•
•
•
•
Support
Protection of soft body parts
Blood cell production
Storage of fats and minerals
Movement using muscles and joints
B.Anatomy of bones
• Classification of bones
a. Long – longer than they
are wide
b. Short – cube shaped
c. Flat – plate-like, with
broad surfaces
d. Irregular – varied
shapes
e. Round – circular in
shape
2.Anatomy of a long bone
a. Periosteum – tough, connective tissue covering that contains
blood vessels
b. Epiphysis – expanded portion at the ends of bones; made of
spongy bone
c. Diaphysis – portion between the epiphyses; the shaft; made of
compact bone
d. Medullary cavity – hollow portion of diaphysis containing yellow
marrow
e. Articular cartilage – layer of hyaline cartilage where bones join
together
f. Endosteum – lines the medullary cavity and the spaces of spongy
bone
g. Red bone marrow – found in spongy bone in adults; where
hematopoiesis occurs
Anatomy of a Long Bone
3.Compact bone structure
a. Osteons are made of concentric layers of
matrix, called lamellae, containing collagen
fibers and mineral salts
b. Lacunae – contain bone cells (osteocytes)
c. Central canal – contains blood vessels and
nerves
d. Canaliculi – small canals that connect lamellae
and osteocytes to blood supply and nerves
e. Perforating canals – run from the periosteum
to the central canal of each osteon
Compact bone structure
4.Spongy bone structure
a.Contains bony bars and plates called trabeculae
b.Trabeculae follow lines of stress, giving bones
strength
C.Physiology of bones
• Types of bone cells
a.Osteoprogenitor cells – unspecialized cells
b.Osteoblasts – bone forming cells
c. Osteocytes – mature bone cells
d.Osteoclasts – bone resorption
2.Bone development and growth
a. Ossification – formation of bone
1)Intramembranous ossification
a)Spongy bone forms between two sheets of fibrous
connective tissue
b)Forms bones of the skull
2)Endochondral ossification
a)Forms most bones of the human body
b)Hyaline cartilage models are replaced by spongy bone,
and then compact bone
Endochondral ossification
Bone growth and development, cont
b.Epiphyseal plate
1)Band of hyaline cartilage in the epiphyses of long
bones
2)Allows the bone to growth in length
3)Long bone growth continues until plate is ossified
c. Appositional growth – increase in bone
diameter
Animation: Bone Growth in Width
Please note that due to differing
operating systems, some animations
will not appear until the presentation is
viewed in Presentation Mode (Slide
Show view). You may see blank slides
in the “Normal” or “Slide Sorter” views.
All animations will appear after viewing
in Presentation Mode and playing each
animation. Most animations will require
the latest version of the Flash Player,
which is available at
http://get.adobe.com/flashplayer.
3.Remodeling of bones
a. Bone is continually being broken down and built up again
b. Osteoclasts remove worn cells and deposit calcium in the
blood
c. Osteoblasts remove calcium from the blood and form new
bone
d. Three important hormones regulating bone growth
1) Parathyroid hormone
2) Calcitonin
3) Growth hormone
e. Proper levels of calcium are needed to prevent osteoporosis
4.Bone repair
a. Required after it fractures (breaks)
b. Steps involved in bone repair
1)Hematoma formation
2)Fibrocartilaginous callus
3)Bony callus
4)Remodeling
c. Reduction – repair of a fracture
1)Closed reduction – re-aligning bone fragments
without surgery
2)Open reduction – surgical repair of the bone using
plates, screws, or pins
Repair of a broken bone
d.Naming of fractures
1)Complete – bone is broken through
2)Incomplete – bone is not separated into two
parts
3)Simple – does not pierce the skin
4)Compound – pierces the skin
5)Impacted – broken ends are wedged into each
other
6)Spiral – ragged break due to twisting of bone
D.Surface features of bones
6.2 Axial Skeleton
A.Introduction
• Tissues of the skeleton – compact and spongy
bone, cartilage, and dense connective tissue
• Axial skeleton
a.Lies in the midline of the body
b.Bones of the axial skeleton – skull, hyoid bone,
vertebral column, thoracic cage, and middle ear
bones
• Appendicular skeleton
a.Bones of the extremities
b.Includes the pectoral girdle, upper limbs, pelvic
girdle, and lower limbs
Major bones of the skeleton
B.Skull
•
•
Formed by the cranium and the facial bones
Sinuses - air spaces within the bones
a. Lined by mucous membranes
b. Reduce the weight of the skull
c. Give the voice a resonant sound
d. Paranasal sinuses – connected to nasal cavity
1)Maxillary
2)Frontal
3)Sphenoidal
4)Ethmoidal
e. Mastoid sinuses – connected to middle ear
Sagittal section of the skull
C.Bones of the cranium
• Protects the brain
• Sutures – immovable joints between cranial bones
• Fontanels – membranous regions in newborns where cranial
bones have not yet fused together
• Composed of eight bones
a. Frontal bone (1)
b. Parietal bones (2)
c. Occipital bone (1)
1)Foramen magnum
2)Occipital condyles
Bones of the cranium, cont
d. Temporal bones (2)
1)External acoustic meatus
2)Mandibular fossa
3)Mastoid process
4)Styloid process
5)Zygomatic process
e. Sphenoid bone (1)
1)Sella turcica
f. Ethmoid bone (1)
1)Crista galli
2)Cribriform plate
3)Perpendicular plate
4)Superior and middle nasal conchae
Skull Anatomy
Skull Anatomy
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
D.Bones of the face
Maxillae (2)
a. Alveolar process
b. Palatine process
Palatine bones (2)
Zygomatic bones (2)
a. Temporal process
b. Zygomatic arch
Lacrimal bones (2)
Nasal bones (2)
Vomer bone (1)
Inferior nasal conchae (2)
Mandible (1)
a. Mandibular condyle
b. Coronoid process
c. Alveolar process
Skull Anatomy
Skull Anatomy
E.Hyoid Bone
• Superior to larynx
• Only bone in the body
that does not
articulate with
another bone
• Anchors the tongue
• Site of attachment for
muscles associated
with swallowing
F.Vertebral Column (Spine)
• Functions
a.Supports rib cage
b.Serves as a point of attachment for the pelvic girdle
c. Protects the spinal cord
• Consists of a series of separate bones named
for their location
a.Seven cervical (neck)
b.Twelve thoracic (chest)
c. Five lumbar (lower back)
d.Five sacral (fused)
e.Three to five coccygeal (fused)
Curvatures of the Spine
Vertebral Column, cont
3. Normal curvatures
a.Cervical and lumbar – convex anteriorly
b.Thoracic and sacral – concave anteriorly
c. Provide support and balance
4. Abnormalities
a.Lordosis – exaggerated lumbar curvature
b.Kyphosis – increased roundness of the thoracic
curvature
c. Scoliosis – abnormal lateral curvature that occurs
most often in the thoracic region
Abnormal Vertebral Curvatures
Vertebral Column, cont
5. Intervertebral Disks
a.Fibrocartilage pads between the bodies of the
vertebrae
b.Prevent vertebrae from grinding against one
another
c. Absorb shock
d.Allow motion between vertebrae
e.Allows space for the exit of spinal nerves from the
spinal cord through intervertebral foramina
f. Can slip or rupture
6.General vertebrae structure
a. Body – anterior portion
b.Vertebral foramen – canal for spinal cord
c. Bony projections serve as sites for muscle
attachment
1)Spinous process (spine) – posterior projection
2)Transverse processes – lateral projections
d.Vertebral arch – lamina and pedicle
e.Superior and inferior articulating processes
with vertebra above and below
Vertebrae
7.Characteristics of specific vertebrae
a. Cervical vertebrae
1) Have transverse foramina and short spines
2) Atlas (C1) – supports the head; allows head movement up
and down
3) Axis (C2) - serves as a pivot for the atlas; allows head
movement from side to side
b. Thoracic vertebrae – have long, slender spines and costal
facets
c. Lumbar vertebrae – have massive bodies and square spines
d. Sacrum – fused sacral vertebrae; forms posterior wall of the
pelvic cavity
e. Coccyx – formed from a fusion of three to five vertebrae
Atlas and axis
G.The rib cage
• Protects the heart and lungs, yet is flexible
• Provides support for the bones of the pectoral
girdle
• The ribs
a.Twelve pair that connect to the thoracic vertebrae
b.True ribs – upper seven pairs connect directly to the
sternum by costal cartilages (vertebrosternal)
c. False ribs – next five pair that attach indirectly to the
sternum or not at all
1)Ribs 8,9,10 – vertebrochondral
2)Ribs 11,12 – vertebral or floating ribs
The rib cage, cont
4.The sternum
a.Flat, blade-shaped bone
b.Composed of three bones that fuse – Manubrium,
Body, and Xiphoid process
c. Provides anatomical reference points for
healthcare professionals
The Rib Cage