Two-factor theory of emotions
The experiment of Schachter and Singer (1962):
Gregorio Marañon (1924) found that participants did not
experience a genuine emotion after injection of epinephrine.
There was one exception: If participants were asked to
imagine how their parents die or how their children get ill,
participants felt a genuine emotion, but only if this
instruction was given after the injection of epinephrine. If
it was given before, no effect could be observed.
Contributor
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Two-factor theory of emotions
This led several authors to postulate a two-factor theory of
emotions, assuming that an emotion is determined by two
factors:
(1) Unspecific physiological activation. This is a
necessary, but not sufficient condition to elicit an
emotion.
(2) Cognitive interpretation of the situation
determines the quality of an emotion.
Stanley Schachter and Jerome Singer tested the twofactor theory in a now classical study. The logic behind
their experiment was the following:
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Experiment of
Schachter and Singer
(1) If there exists physiological arousal for which
there is no explanation:  Quality of emotion
depends on cognitive interpretation. The same
state of physiological arousal can be
experienced as either joy or anger.
(2) If physiological arousal can be explained:  No
emotion.
(3) Identical cognitive interpretations elicit an
emotion only if there is physiological arousal.
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Experiment of
Schachter and Singer
Epinephrine
Hypotheses:
Placebo
Euphoria
P
Neutral
Anger
Informed
P
Neutral
Not informed
A
A
Euphoria
Euphoria
A
Neutral
A
Neutral
Misinformed
A
Anger
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Experiment of
Schachter and Singer
Results:
Self report
Epinephrine
Placebo
Informed
P
Euphoria
1.61
0.98
1.63
1.78
A
1.91
Misinformed
A
A
P
Anger
Not informed
1.90
A
1.39
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A
In both conditions:
The higher number
denotes more
positive emotions
Experiment of
Schachter and Singer
Results:
Behavior
Epinephrine
Placebo
Informed
P
Euphoria
16.00
12.72
0.79
18.28
A
-0.18
Misinformed
A
A
P
Anger
Not informed
22.56
A
2.28
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A
Euphoria
The higher, the
more euphoria
Anger:
The higher, the
more anger
Experiment of
Schachter and Singer
Results:
Behavior
Conclusion:
Epinephrine
Placebo
Nottheory
informed
The hypotheses Informed
of the two-factor
of
Misinformed
emotions were only partly confirmed, and some other
studies did not
the
A
P provide supportAfor or even contracdicted
Euphoria
A
two-factor theory of emotion (Lazarus et al., 1965; Maslach, 1979;
16.00
Anger
12.72
18.28
Marshall
& Zimbardo, 1979).
22.56
However, this study stimulated many other experiments
Euphoria
on the
and cognitive appraisal The higher, the
P role of arousal A
A
more euphoria
of the situation (e.g., Dutton & Aron, 1974;
Anger:
Zillmann
0.79
-0.18 et al., 1972)2.28
The higher, the
more anger
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