Governments are defined by where they understand power to come from. The four sources of power are evolution,
force, Divine Right and Social Contract. Leaders who feel they must take power often become dictators. Totalitarian
governments are the most extreme form of dictatorship. In Democracies, governments believe power is derived from
the people, who create a social contract, or an agreement with a government that the people will give them power in
exchange for protection of their rights. Direct democracies by all citizens in which laws may be made directly by all
citizens. In representative democracies, also called republics, citizens elect representatives who make laws for them.
Democracies have the following fundamental concepts: majority rule with minority rights, free elections, individual
liberty, and competing political parties. Decisions are determined in a democracy by using the concept of majority rule.
Every government’s goal is to stay in power. Government maintains order by enforcing laws that protect people’s safety
and security. Social Contract theory illustrates the concept that power originates with the people. John Locke is best
known for the idea that all people possess the natural rights of life, liberty, and property. Rousseau wrote the book, “The
Social Contract” and defined the relationship of the government to the people. Montesquieu defined the separation of
powers. Voltaire promoted the concept of rights and his ideas are reflected in the Bill of Rights. The Article of
Confederation served as a foundation for the Constitution. James Madison is considered the Father of the Constitution.
Thomas Jefferson was the writer of the Declaration of Independence and our third president. John Adams was the
Thinker and brought the ideas together on the Declaration Writing Committee. He was also our 2nd president. There
were three major arguments that defined the Constitution: Big states v. little states, North v. South, and Federalist v.
Anti-federalist. The Connecticut (or Great) Compromise solved the problems of representation that the big and little
states argued about because it determined a bicameral legislature and a method of representation by population. The
conflict between the North and the South was resolved with the 3/5 Compromise. The Federalist v. Anti-federalist
conflict was resolved by adding a Bill of Rights. Federalists promoted a strong national government. Anti-Federalists
opposed the new Constitution because it contained no Bill of Rights. The Constitution is considered the law of the land
in the United States. The Preamble to the Constitution includes states our new country’s goals, which include forming a
more perfect union, establishing justice, providing for the common defense, and promoting the general welfare. The Bill
of Rights was added to specifically protect citizens from the abuse of power by either the national or state government.
The Elastic Clause allows Congress to make all laws necessary and proper. Power in the federal system of government is
divided between national and state or provincial governments. The power is also divided among three branches of
government: Article 1 describes the Legislative Branch, which makes the laws, Article II describes the Executive branch
which enforces (or executes) the law, and Article III describes the Judicial Branch, which interprets the law. The process
of amending the Constitution illustrates federalism because it involves both the national government and the states. As
described by the Constitution, the Federal government holds expressed, implied, and inherent powers. Expressed
powers are listed in the Constitution, Implied powers are those necessary and proper to carry out the expressed powers,
and the inherent powers are those established by all sovereign countries. An example of a denied state power might be
that a state declares war. The powers to tax, borrow money, and establish courts are concurrent powers.
We have 2 primary political parties in this country, and although they have changed names, they have always
represented the Federalists and the Anti-federalists. These days, they are known as the Democrats and Republicans.
This two-party system is based on the system in Great Britain. Democrats are considered more liberal, more federalist,
and more inclined towards supply-side, or Keynesian Economics. Republicans are considered more conservative, more
anti-federalist, and more inclined towards demand-side or Monetarist Economics. The role of the political parties is to
select candidates, raise funds and monitor the party in power. Presidential candidates focus their campaigns in states
that have the largest numbers of electoral votes. Scientific polling is used to measure public attitudes. Interest groups
form to contribute funds to political candidates that agree with their agenda. Presidential candidates are nominated for
US office at conventions. The term suffrage means the right to vote. When making informed choices, voters should
consider evidence of bias, propaganda techniques, and the source of the funds to behind a candidate’s campaign.
Incumbents are successful at getting reelected because it is easier for them to raise campaign funds. In the Electoral
College, the number of electors for each state is based on the state’s congressional representation. As part of the Great
Compromise, the number of representatives in the legislative branch is determined by the population of each state. The
Speaker of the House is the most powerful leader in the House of Representatives. The term for a proposed law is a bill.
The branch of government responsible for impeaching the president is the legislative branch. The requirements to be
President include being 35 years old, a natural born citizen of the US, and a resident of the nation for at least 14 years.
The president has many roles. When the president attends the funeral of a world leader, he is acting in the role of head
of state. The president is also officially the Commander in Chief of the military. Checks and Balances mean the 3
branches of government hold some power over each other branch. The Supreme Court has the power to declare any law
or executive act unconstitutional. This is called judicial review. John Marshall helped determine the power of the
Supreme Court through the court case Marbury v. Madison in 1803. The Court will issue a concurring opinion, a majority
opinion, and a dissenting opinion. A concurring opinion is when a justice votes with the majority, but for a different
reason. Supreme Court Justices serve for life. District courts include a judge and a jury, and they hold original
jurisdiction, which means they have the right to hear a court case for the first time. If the Supreme Court refuses to hear
a case, the decision of the lower court stands. When the court or any justice only exercises the power of judicial review
when necessary, and only reviews cases strictly on how the Constitution is written, this is referred to as judicial restraint.
An important court case which established rights of the accused and required police officers to recite the rights upon
arrest, and which gives a specific warning regarding interrogation is the Miranda v. Arizona case.
Adam Smith is the Father of Economics. Economics is the study of how economies make the best use of scarce
resources. Scarcity refers to insufficient resources to meet everyone’s wants and needs. The four basic questions of any
economic system include what, how, how many, and for whom. Total revenue is determined by price and the quantity
of the unit sold. The law of demand states that if demand increases so will the price. The government provides some
public goods and services to benefit citizens. Examples of these include infrastructure, public health and safety, and
public schools. When government gets involved in business, such as increasing minimum wage, usually, employment
rates will go down as businesses compensate for the increased cost. There are three types of businesses, sole
proprietorship, partnership, and corporation. There are more sole proprietorships than any other kind of company. The
only major differences between a partnership and a corporation are the risk and the liability. The United States strives
towards a free market economy, as does Germany and Canada. Other kinds of economies include Communist,
traditional, and mixed. Most countries of the world have mixed economies.
The primary goal of foreign policy is to promote national interests. The War of 1812 was the first war fought with
another country, which was Great Britain. The Monroe Doctrine was the first major Foreign Policy decision, and it stated
that any attempt to colonize or gain political control over Latin America would be met with force. The Industrial
Revolution allowed the US to become a world power economically. Teddy Roosevelt used Dollar Diplomacy and strategic
geopolitics to position the United States as a world military and political power. It was towards this effort that he
negotiated the building of the Panama Canal. Our growing power allowed us to help defeat Germany in World War I,
after having intercepted the Zimmerman Note, in which Germany invited Mexico to invade the US. After World War I,
our president Woodrow Wilson tried to negotiate peace in the Treaty of Versailles, but the other European countries
wanted Germany to pay for its mistakes. The League of Nations, which was formed out of the Treaty of Versailles, was
ineffective because it lacked military power. After the bombing of Pearl Harbor, the United States was forced out of
isolationism. We fought in World War II in Europe against the Germans under Adolf Hitler, in the Pacific against the
Japanese under Hirohito, and in Africa against the Italians under Mussolini. Great Britain, led by Winston Churchill, was
our ally. Our president, following Franklin D. Roosevelt’s death, was Harry S Truman, who is best known for ending the
war with Japan by dropping nuclear bombs on Nagasaki and Hiroshima. The United Nations was formed to promote the
security and economic prosperity of member nations. The Marshall Plan and the Truman Doctrine both worked to slow
the spread of communism. The Cold War, which began at the end of World War II, ended with the falling of the Berlin
Wall in 1989.
The court case Brown v. Board of Education overturned the separate-but-equal doctrine defined by Plessy v. Ferguson..
Thurgood Marshall was the lawyer who represented this case. Civil Rights movement saw many instances of civil
disobedience, which is defined as willful non-violent non-cooperation with an unjust law. This would include such
actions as marches, sit ins at lunch counters, and bus boycotts. Affirmative Action was created to hire and promote
minorities, women, and others who faced discrimination. The 14th Amendment to the Constitution guarantees all
citizens due process and sets up citizenship standards. The 15th Amendment gave African Americans the right to vote.
The 19th Amendment gave women the right to vote. The 23rd Amendment gave the District of Columbia electoral college
representatives for a Presidential election.