Holes in the Fabric
of an Argument
Actually, Two Categories
• Logical fallacies: conclusions based
upon faulty reasoning; weaknesses in an
argument
• False emotional appeals: appealing
unfairly to readers’ fears, prejudices,
stereotypes, and other emotions
– The distinction isn’t crucial; all are
argumentative errors to be avoided.
FALSE APPEALS
• Ad populum arguments (“to the
people”)
– Appeals to the false authority of a person or
group of people
– Snob appeal: Beyonce says X, and Beyonce
is an elite; therefore X is right.
• The basis for a large proportion of celebrity
product endorsements (although some of
those are legitimate, e.g. pain cream, etc.)
– Bandwagon appeal: X is popular; therefore
X is right.
• Every civilized nation except the US has
universal health care; we should, too.
FALSE APPEALS
• Ad hominem arguments (“against the
man”)
– Attacking a person, not his or her argument
• What does Bill Clinton/Newt Gingrich know
about education? He’s a philanderer!
• Ad misericordium arguments
– Falsely appealing to sympathy
– Rhonda says X, and Rhonda suffered
Irrelevant Sad Thing Y; therefore, X is right.
• Mrs. Sikora had pneumonia as a child, so
disagreeing with her on fiscal policy is meanspirited and wrong.
FALLACIES
• Not factual errors; errors in thinking
– MAJOR: All dogs go to heaven.
– MINOR: Charlie is in heaven.
– CONCLUSION: Charlie is a dog.
• Lots of non-dogs go to heaven; premise didn’t say “only.”
– MAJOR: All dogs are furry.
– MINOR: Robin Williams is furry.
– CONCLUSION: Robin Williams is a dog.
• Some non-dogs are furry.
– MAJOR: If Walt Disney directed Snow White, it is a
Disney movie.
– MINOR: Snow White is a Disney movie.
– CONCLUSION: Walt Disney directed Snow White.
• The major premise is turned backward by the conclusion.
FALLACIES
• Hasty/broad generalization
– HASTY: Assuming a general rule based on
limited or insufficient evidence
• Osama Bin Laden has terrorist ties; therefore,
all Muslims have terrorist ties.
– Valid premise, faulty conclusion
– BROAD: a sweeping claim without evidence,
which can be easily disproved
• All men are pigs; therefore, Delbert is a pig.
– Faulty premise, faulty conclusion
FALLACIES
• False choice
– A false dichotomy used to describe a more
complex multitude of options
• Anyone who opposes this war either is a
coward or hates everything the US stands for.
• Circular reasoning (“begging the question”)
– “Proving” your premise and pretending you
made a point: “X is true because X is true.”
• There is a God because the Bible says there
is, and the Bible is the Word of God.
FALLACIES
• Post hoc ergo propter hoc argument
– “after this, therefore because of this”
– Falsely concludes causality
• Every time you miss your bedtime,
someone dies somewhere.
• Non sequitur (“it does not follow”)
– Conclusions based on irrelevant premises
• CHEEZ-ITs are tasty; therefore, they
are good for you.
FALLACIES
• Tu quoque (“You, also” or “You’re another”)
– Avoiding an accusation by turning it back on
the accuser.
• The U.S. has no right to criticize Osama bin
Laden for targeting women and children on
9/11. The U.S. did the same thing when it
dropped the atomic bombs on Japan.
– Just because your accuser is a hypocrite
doesn’t mean he’s wrong. This is a
cowardly dodge that only seeks to discredit
the opponent, rather than disprove the
claim.
FALLACIES
• Weak analogy
– Analogy whose analogues have more
important differences than similarities
• You wouldn’t bet on a horse that keeps
losing, so stop watching the Cubs.
– A losing horse is the same physical creature
from race to race, but team rosters change.
– Also includes “incendiary allusions”
• The no-hoodies rule is a fascist policy.
– We know exactly what fascism is, and that
rule doesn’t fit the definition, but the allusion
conjures up lots of useful fear and anger.
FALLACIES
• “Straw man”
– Referencing a simplified, false, or
exaggerated version of an opponent’s
position in order to discredit it
• Advocates of Obamacare want to send
Grandma before a death panel to
decide if she’s worth preserving!
• Opponents of Obamacare want to
deprive the poor and the sick of
adequate medical care!
MORE FALLACIES
• Appeal to tradition
– Support my idea; it’s always been this way,
and therefore it’s best!
• Appeal to novelty
– Support my idea; it’s new and innovative,
and therefore better than anything old!
• Appeal to ridicule
– Dismissing an argument or person using
hollow insults rather than reasoning
• Please don’t tell me you’re one of those
cavemen who argues that God exists! Aren’t we
past that?
MORE FALLACIES
• Guilt by association
– Ringo says X, and Ringo has some link to
Discredited Person Y; therefore, X is wrong.
• Political ads: opponents hugging unpopular pols
• Apophasis (“uh-PAHF-uh-sis”)
– Mentioning something by claiming not to
mention it
• I won’t even address my opponent’s suspicious
overseas activities in the 1980s…
• Remember: any claim that attempts to shortcircuit debate by ignoring, obfuscating, or
exaggerating facts is probably fallacious!