Sarcasm in Computer-mediated Messages:
Do Emoticons :) Help or Hurt Emotional
and Behavioral Reactions to Non-literal
Messages?
Ann Rumble, Ph.D.
Johnnie M. Martin
Ohio University-Chillicothe
13th International Conference of Social Dilemmas
August 24th, 2009
Strict Reciprocity

Reciprocity


Doing what the other person did the last time
Tit-for-Tat
 Nice
 Forgiving
 Retaliatory
 Clear

BUT…

TFT/strict reciprocity is a reactive strategy
A stumbling block of reciprocity

Reciprocity in noisy environments

What if unintentional noncooperation exists in an
environment?
Robert Axelrod



Simulations of uncertainty and noise


Error/Noise is one of the most important factors in
understanding how to resolve conflict at both mirco and macro
levels
Strong evidence that both will increase noncooperation in social
dilemmas (Bendor, 1993; Bendor, Kramer, & Stout, 1991;
Kollock, 1993; Wu & Axelrod, 1996;Wu & Axelrod, 1997)
Behavioral data

Van Lange and colleagues have confirmed simulations results
in behavioral experiments (Van Lange et al, 2002; Van Lange et
al, 2003)
Rumble, Van Lange, & Parks, 2009
Cooperative Behavior

Noise: F(1,114)=12.21, p=.001
8
7.5
7
6.5
6
5.5
5
No Noise
Noise
Block Block Block Block Block Block Block
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
What are real-world sources
of noise that may interfere
with cooperation?
Communication channels in
Cyberspace
“ The Internet is filled with
junk and jerks… the signal-to
noise ratio, it is said, is bad
and getting worse.”
Peter Kollock, in his chapter in
Communites in Cyberspace, 1999
Growing and continued dependence
on text or email messaging

As of August 2008, there were 1.3 billion e-mail users
worldwide (Radicati Group).

86% of the U.S. owns a cell phone and an estimated 75
billion text messages are sent each month

Used to communicate in multiple settings, such as,
social networks, workplace, and academic settings
Sarcasm



Sarcasm-the non-literal use of language that can
be verbally aggressive and directed at a specific
target
Deciphering the meaning is facilitated through the
use of non-verbal behaviors, and social-cultural
stereotypes such as occupation, status, and gender
of the sender (Katz, 2004)
Understanding sarcasm requires both the ability to
understand the speaker’s belief about the listener’s
belief and the ability to identify emotions (ShamayTsoory, S.G., Tomer, R.,& Aharon-Peretz, J.,2008 )
What happens if sarcasm is misunderstood?
Emoticons



Emotion can be shown in electronic messaging
through the use of emoticons.
An emoticon is the merging of the words emotion
and icon.
Examples:

:)
Smile

;-) Wink

:-( Sad

:-0 Surprise

:-@ Angry
Study 1: Do emoticons help or hurt
emotional reactions to sarcastic email
messages?


Hypothesis: Sarcasm can be misperceived in email
communication which can lead to increases in
negative feelings and decreased positive feelings,
but emoticons may reduce these feelings
Participants



80 OUC undergraduates
Independent variable: Message type and Emoticons
Dependent variables: Negative feelings and Positive
feelings.
Sarcastic message
From SENDER
To RECEIVER
Subj ect RE: Last night?!
Sent Mon, 26 Aug 2005 1:45:19
HeyΙ
Wow, it was a little embarrassing! Yeah you were acting
extremely stupidΙ
 Maybe you will be able to show yo ur
face to everyone in a couple of monthsΙ
 Well, whateverΙ
see y ou soon!
L8er!
-----Original Message----From: Receiver
Sent: Monday, August 26, 2005 11:00 AM
To: Sender
Subject: Last night?!
What did you think of the party on Saturday? So rry if I was
acting stupidΙI
have a lot of crazy stuff going on right now
and I havenΥ
t been mys elf. Well, hopefully we hang out later
this weekΙ TT YL!
No Humor message
From SENDER
To RECEIVER
Subject RE: Last night?!
Sent Mon, 26 AUG 2005 1:45:19
HeyΙHow
about getting together on Thurs day for a bite to
eat? Maybe we could go to that new restaurant on High St. that
everyo ne is raving aboutΙ
What do you think? Well , just let
me knowΙ see you soo
n!
L8er!
-----Original Messag e----From: Receiver
Sent: Monday, August 26, 2005 11:00 AM
To: Sender
Subject: Last night?!
What did you think of the p arty on Saturday? Sorry if I was
acting stupidΙI have
a lot of crazy stuff going on right now
and I ha venΥtbeen myself. Well, hopefully we hang out later
this weekΙ TTY
L!
Main effect of message type
5
4.5
4
3.5
3
2.5
2
1.5
1
0.5
0
Negative Feelings
No Humor
Sarcasm
4.5
4
3.5
3
2.5
2
1.5
1
0.5
0
Positive Feelings
Impact of Emoticons in Sarcastic messages
Positive Feelings
Negative Feelings
5
4.5
4
3.5
3
2.5
2
1.5
1
0.5
0
3.5
3
2.5
Emoticons
2
No Emoticons 1.5
1
0.5
0
Knows How to Use Sarcasm
4.5
4
3.5
3
2.5
2
1.5
1
0.5
0
Emoticons
No Emoticons
4.5
4
3.5
3
2.5
2
1.5
1
0.5
0
Ability to Crack People Up
Summary of Study 1


Sarcasm increases negative feelings and
reduces positive feelings in email
messages compared to neutral messages
But, if emoticons are used the sarcastic
message may be easier to decipher as
humor, thus positive feelings increase and
negative feelings decrease
Study 2: Do emoticons help or hurt
behavioral reactions to sarcastic text
messages?



Introduction of alternative communication channels during
social dilemma task
Sarcasm may increase noncooperative behavior in a social
dilemma, but the presence of emoticons may reduce this
noncooperation
Participants



58 OUC undergraduates
Independent variables: Message type and Emoticons
Dependent variable: Cooperative behavior and emotional
reaction
Give Some Game

Participants were told they would interact with
an unknown other on a task




All participants actually interacted during the social
dilemma task with the pre-programmed strategy of titfor-tat
Participants were told they would receive messages
from the other person during the course of the task,
but were not able to send them.
For each trial, the participant had 10 coins to either
keep or give away; the participant’s coins are worth
$0.50 to the participant, and $1.00 to the unknown
other; the same was true for the unknown other.
As an incentive, participants were told that the
amount of points they accumulated would determine
their chances of receiving prizes.
Sarcastic Messages




Not the brightest crayon in the box now, are
we?
I refuse to star in your psychodrama
Aw, did I step on your poor little bitty ego?
Is it time for your medication or mine?
Results: Emotional Reaction
I dislike the other person
How much do you trust the other
3.5
No message/ No
emoticons
No message/
Emoticons
Sarcasm/No
emoticons
Sarcasm/Emoticons
3
2.5
2
1.5
1
0.5
0
5
Knows How to Use Sarcasm
4
3.5
4
3
2
1
0
3
2.5
2
1.5
1
0.5
0
4
3.5
3
2.5
2
1.5
1
0.5
0
Other person made me feel pleased
with my choices
Results: Cooperative Behavior
6.5
6
5.5
No message/No
Emoticon
No message/Emoticon
5
4.5
Sarcasm/ No Emoticon
4
3.5
Sarcasm/Emoticon
3
2.5
2
Block 1
Block 2
Block 3
Summary of Study 2


Noise from alternative channels may
impact cooperative behavior
Emoticons do lessen the impact of
sarcastic messages on emotions and
cooperative behavior
Conclusion and future directions



Explore additional ways that noise may
enter into a social dilemma
Methods for correcting the effect of noise
Cyberspace interactions need to be better
understood to reduce the “signal to noise
ratio”
Thank you to my junior co-author,
texting guru, and long distance data
analyzer!
…who also
happens to be
my 17 year old
daughter!
Sarcasm in Computer-mediated
Messages:
Do Emoticons :) Help or Hurt
Emotional and Behavioral
Reactions to Non-literal Messages?
Ann Rumble, Ph.D.
Johnnie M. Martin
Ohio University-Chillicothe
13th International Conference of Social Dilemmas
August 24th, 2009