AP PSYCHOLOGY
INTRO & HISTORY OF PSYCH
REVIEW GUIDE
Pre-scientific Psychology
Socrates, Plato, & Descartes: Believed the mind and body were separate entities (dualism) and that most
ideas, thoughts, traits, etc., were inborn. (Nature over Nurture).
Aristotle and Locke: Believed that the mind and body were connected (monism) and that the mind was a
"blank slate" upon which experience writes (Nurture over Nature).
Psychology as a Science
Psychology's roots are in medicine and philosophy. Psychology grew out of a field called
psychophysics.
A. Structuralism: an early school of psychology that used objective introspection to explore the
structural elements of the mind.
Wilhelm Wundt (first psychological laboratory)
Edward Titchner: Introspection
B. Functionalism: a school of psychology that focused on how mental and behavioral processes
function--how they enable the organism to flourish, adapt, and survive.
William James: Wrote Principles of Psychology (the first textbook)
C. Gestalt Psychology: School of psychology that studies how people perceive and experience objects as
whole patterns. Their motto: "the whole is greater than the sum of its parts". Their focus is perception.
Wertheimer, Kohler, and Koffka
Psychology's 3 Big Issues
1. Nature-nurture: the controversy over the relative contributions that genes (nature) and experience
(nurture) make to the development of psychological traits and behaviors.
2. Stability versus Change: Do our individual traits change as we age or do they remain fairly
stable? Also, do our traits change in different situations?
3. Rationality versus Irrationality: Are we in control of our own behavior? Do we have free will or are
we at the mercy of unconscious desires or our environment? Do we really deserve to be called homo
sapiens?
Psychology's Perspectives
Neuroscience: Studies how the brain (and other body systems) create emotions, memories, and sensory
experiences.
Evolutionary: Studies how natural selection of behavioral traits promotes the perpetuation of one's
genes.
Behavior Genetics: Studies how much our genes and our environment influence our individual
differences.
Psychodynamic: Focuses on how behavior springs from unconscious drives and conflicts (based on
Freud's psychoanalytic theory).
Behavioral: How contingencies in the environment cause us to LEARN observable responses. (Skinner
&Watson)
Cognitive: Studies how we encode, process, store, and retrieve information.
Humanistic: Focuses on free will and reaching one's full human potential. (Maslow & Rogers)
Social-cultural: Looks at how behavior and thinking vary across situations and cultures.
Psychology's Subfields
Biological Ψ: Concerned with the links between the brain and nervous system and behavior.
Developmental Ψ: Study of physical, cognitive, and social changes throughout the lifespan.
Social Ψ: The scientific study of how we think about, influence, and relate to one another.
Cognitive Ψ: The scientific study of how we think, perceive, and solve problems.
Personality Ψ: Investigation of personality traits.
Industrial/Organizational Ψ: The application of psychological concepts and methods to optimizing
human behavior in the workplace.
Clinical Ψ: The study, assessment, and treatment of people with mental illnesses. Clinical psychologists
hold Ph.D.'s.
Basic Research: pure experimental research that aims to increase the scientific knowledge base.
Applied Research: Scientific research that aims to solve practical problems.
Psychiatry: A branch of medicine dealing with psychological disorders. Psychiatrists are physicians
(MD's).
AP PSYCHOLOGY
SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY
REVIEW GUIDE
Social Psychology: The scientific study of how we think about, influence, and relate to other people.
Attribution Theory: (Fritz Heider) The theory that we tend to explain other people's behavior in terms of
the situation or in terms of their dispositions (personality).
Fundamental Attribution Error: The tendency, when analyzing another person's behavior, to
underestimate the importance of the situation and overestimate the importance of personal dispositions.
HOW ACTIONS AFFECT ATTITUDES
Foot-in-the-door Phenomenon: The tendency for people who agree to a small request to agree to a
larger one later on.
Role Playing: The strong effects of "playing a role" were demonstrated by Phillip Zimbardo's prison
study in which college students were assigned the roles of prisoners or guards. The study was called off
after only 6 days.
Cognitive Dissonance Theory: The theory that we act to reduce the discomfort (dissonance) we feel
when 2 of our thoughts (cognitions) or a thought and an action are inconsistent. When our actions and
attitudes clash, we can reduce the resulting dissonance by changing our attitudes.
Self-fulfilling Prophecy: Process by which our beliefs or attitudes about another person causes that
person to behave in a way which only confirms our beliefs.
SOCIAL INFLUENCES
Conformity: Adjusting one's behavior or thinking to coincide with a group standard.
In a set of famous studies conducted by Solomon Asch (where subjects were asked to judge the length of
lines), it was found that subjects would conform when the rest of the group was wrong in their judgments
about 1/3 of the time. It was found that conformity would increase if:
a) The group has status or is admired
b) The group consists of at least 3 people
c) The group is unanimous
e) You have made no prior commitments
f) You feel incompetent of insecure
g) Your culture encourages conformity
Normative Social Influence: Conforming to obtain approval or avoid disapproval (conforming simply to
"fit in").
Informational Social Influence: Conforming because of a willingness to accept others' opinions about
reality (conforming because we believe others' "know more" than we do).
Obedience: Behavior in response to a command from another person, usually an authority figure.
*In a set of famous studies by Stanley Milgram, it was found that 67% of the subjects (called teachers)
would "shock" "learners" (who were really confederates) until apparent death simply by being told to do
so by the researcher. The level of obedience could be increased to almost 100% if:
a) The person giving orders was in close proximity to the "teacher" & was perceived as a legitimate
authority figure.
b) The authority figure seemed to be from a prestigious institution (such as Yale)
c) The "learner" (the confederate victim) was not in close proximity to the teacher (e.g., in another room)
d) No other subjects were observed disobeying the orders of the authority figure
***Milgram's studies had a huge impact on "ethics" in experimental research.
GROUP INFLUENCES
Social Facilitation: Improved performance of tasks in the presence of others; occurs with simple or welllearned tasks but not with tasks that are difficult or not yet mastered.
Social Loafing: The tendency for people in a group to exert less effort when pooling their efforts.
Deindividuation: Due to a sense of anonymity and high arousal, a loss of self-restraint sometimes seen in
a group (i.e., mob behavior).d) The group is observing and is aware of your behavior
Group Polarization: The enhancement of a group's prevailing attitudes following discussion within the
group.
Groupthink: The form of unrealistic thinking that can occur in a cohesive group when a desire for
harmony within the group overrides logical and realistic thinking.
SOCIAL RELATIONS
Prejudice: An unjustifiable (and usually negative) attitude toward a group and its members. Prejudice
typically involves stereotyped beliefs, negative feelings, and a predisposition toward discriminatory
behavior.
Stereotype: A generalized (sometimes accurate, but often overgeneralized) belief about a group of
people.
Scapegoat Theory: The theory that prejudice offers an outlet for anger by providing someone to blame
for your (or your society's) problems.
Ingroup: "Us"--the people with whom we share a common identity.
Outgroup: "Them"--those perceived as different or apart from one's ingroup.
Ingroup Bias: The tendency to favor one's own group.
The Just-World Phenomenon: The tendency for people to believe that the world is fair and just and
therefore, people get what they deserve and deserve what they get.
Ethnocentrism: The belief that your race or ethnicity is superior. Judging another culture by the values
and standards of your own culture
AGGRESSION
Any physical or verbal behavior intended to hurt or destroy.
Biological Influences:
Genetics
Neural Influences: amygdala stimulation; diminished activity in the frontal lobes
Biochemical Influences: testosterone; alcohol
Psychological Influences:
Violence in the media: movies, TV, video games
"Learned" violence at home
Frustration-aggression Principle: When an attempt to achieve a goal is blocked, frustration is
created. This, in turns creates anger, which can generate aggression.
PSYCHOLOGY OF ATTRACTION
1. Proximity: Simple "geographical nearness" may be the most powerful predictor of friendship and
attraction to others. It helps create The mere-exposure effect: repeated exposure to a novel stimulus
increases our "liking" of that stimulus.
2. Physical Attractiveness: Studies reveal that our 1st impressions of people are based on their level of
physical attractiveness. While there are many cultural differences in what is deemed attractive, men are
attracted to "youthful" women and women are attracted to "mature, dominant, and affluent" men.
3. Similarity: We tend to be attracted to people who are similar to us in beliefs, attitudes, interests,
attractiveness level, etc. In truth, "opposites do not attract".
Love: The premiere researcher in this area is Elaine Hatfield.
Passionate Love: An aroused state of intense positive absorption in another, usually present at the
beginning of a relationship (also typical of adolescent love).
Companionate Love: The deep affectionate attachment we feel for those with whom our live are
intertwined. It involves:
Equity: A person feels they receive as much from the relationship as they put into it.
Self-disclosure: Ability to reveal intimate feelings and aspects about oneself to others.
ALTRUISM
A total unselfish regard for the welfare of others.
Social Exchange Theory: The goal of our social behavior is to maximize benefits and minimize costs.
Reciprocity Norm: Through socialization, we learn that we should help, not harm, others----and they
may someday help us.
Bystander Effect (or Diffusion of Responsibility): The tendency for a person to be less likely to give
aid in an emergency if other bystanders are present. (We are MORE likely to help if we are not in a hurry,
we are in a good mood, we have seen someone else being helpful, we feel the victim deserves help, we
feel the victim is somehow similar to us).
AP PSYCHOLOGY
RESEARCH METHODS
REVIEW GUIDE
The Scientific Method
Theory: An integrated set of principles that organizes and predicts behavior.
Hypothesis: A testable prediction often implied by a theory.
Operational Definitions: Statements (descriptions) of the procedures used to define research variables.
Replication: Repeating the essence of a study, usually with different participants and in different
situations.
Hindsight Bias: The tendency to believe, after learning the outcome, that you knew that was how it
would turn out.
Goal of research: To describe, predict, & explain behavior.
I. Research that Describes only
Case Study: A descriptive technique in which one person is studied in depth in the hope of revealing
universal principles.
Naturalistic Observation: Observing & recording behavior in naturally occurring situations without
manipulating or controlling the situation.
Survey: A techniques for obtaining self-reported attitudes or behaviors of people, usually by questioning
a representative, random sample of them.
Population: All of the people in a particular group from with a sample may be drawn.
Random Sample: A subset of people who fairly represent the population because each person has an
equal chance of being selected. Using a random sample increase the generalizability (external validity)
of a study.
Generalizability: The extent to which results of a study can be applied to the outside world. Also
called External Validity.
False Consensus Effect: The tendency to overestimate the extent to which others share our beliefs and
behaviors.
Social Desirability Bias: Tendency of subjects to present themselves in a socially desirable light.
II. Research the Describes and Predicts Behavior
(Non-Experimental Designs)
Correlational Research: Research that seeks to measure the RELATIONSHIP between two variables
without trying to determine causality or manipulating either of the variables.
Scatterplot: A graphed cluster of dots, each which represents the values of two variables. The slope
of the dots represents the direction (+ or -) of the relationship while the amount of "scatter" suggests the
strength of the correlation.
Correlation Coefficient: A statistical measure of the extent to which two factors vary together, and
thus how well either factor predicts the other. The statistic is always between -1.00 and +1.00.
A Positive correlation coefficient means that as one variable increases, so does the other.
A Negative correlation coefficient means that as one variable increases, the other decreases (i.e., an
inverse relationship).
Regardless of the strength of the relationship, correlations cannot tell us that one variable CAUSES
changes in the other because:
1) Variable X could be affecting variable Y OR
variable Y could be affecting variable X.
2) Third variables could be affecting BOTH variables X and Y.
Illusory Correlation: The perception of a relationship between two variables where none truly exists.
Differential Research: Research that involves comparing two or more exiting groups on some variable
of interest. The groups are typically based on some pre-existing subject variable (e.g., gender, age, IQ,
personality trait, etc.)
III. Research that Describes, Predicts, & Explains Behavior (i.e., cause and effect)
The True Experiment: A research method in which an investigator manipulates one or more factors
(independent variables) in order to observe the effect on some behavior or mental process (dependent
variable). By randomly assigning participants to groups, other relevant factors are controlled.
Independent Variable: The factor that is being manipulated by the researchers. The theoretical
"cause" in the cause and effect relationship.
Dependent Variable: The factor (a behavior or mental process) that is being measured by the
researchers. The variable that is predicted to change in response to the manipulation of the IV.
Operational Definitions: Specific statements describing how the the IV is manipulated and how the
DV is measured.
Random Assignment: Assigning participants to control and experimental conditions on the basis of
chance, thus minimizing pre-existing differences between the groups (i.e., it controls preexisting subject
variables.
Experimental Condition (or Group): The condition of an experiment that exposes participants to the
treatment of interest, that is, to one level of the independent variable.
Control Condition (or Group): The condition of an experiment that contrasts with the experimental
condition and serves as a comparison for evaluating the effect of the treatment.
*At the conclusion of an experiment, the mean scores the experimental and control groups receive on the
DEPENDENT VARIABLE are COMPARED to determine if a statistically significant difference exists.
Control Techniques used to control confounding variables.
Random Assignment: Controls pre-existing subject variables.
Control Group: Controls history, maturation, and testing effects.
Placebo: An inert substance given to the control group in place of an actual medication. It controls the
Placebo Effect.
Placebo Effect: Experimental results caused by the subjects' expectations alone.
Double-Blind Design: An experimental procedure in which both the research participants and the
research staff are ignorant (blind) about whether subjects are in the control or experimental groups
(commonly used in drug-evaluation studies). This type of design controls subject and experimenter
effects.
Subject Effects or Biases: Any response by subjects in a study that does not represent how they
would normally behave if not under study. Two powerful subject effects are the placebo effect and the
demand characteristics of the study.
Demand Characteristics: Aspects of the study that suggest to the subjects what type of behavior
is expected or desired by the researchers.
Experimenter Effects or Biases: Any behavior of a researcher that might affect the behavior of
the subjects or affect the measurement and recording of the dependent variable.
Ex Post Facto: Designs similar to true experiments, but without all of the control techniques built in
(e.g., random assignment may not be used).
Statistics
Measures of Central Tendency
Mean: Arithmetical average calculated by dividing a sum of values by the total number of cases
Median: Point that divides a set of scores in half.
Mode: The most frequent score in a distribution of scores
*Of these three measures, the MEAN is most affected by outliers or extreme scores.
Measures of Variation
Range: Difference between the largest and smallest scores in a distribution.
Variance: A statistical average of the amount of dispersion around the mean in a distribution of the
scores. It is the Standard Deviation squared.
Standard Deviation: A statistical measure of the amount of dispersion in a set of scores. Specifically, it
is the square root of the average squared deviations from the mean of a set of scores. It is simply the
square root of the variance.
*Of the three measures, the STANDARD DEVIATION is most affected by outliers.
Distributions of Scores
Normal Curve: Hypothetical, bell-shaped distribution of scores that occurs when a normal distribution is
plotted as a frequency polygon.
In a normal distribution, the mean, median, and mode are all equal and divide the distribution in
half (the 50th percentile).
Percentile Rank: Reflects the percentage of subjects who score lower than the subject in question
The Normal Distribution
Positively Skewed Distribution: A distribution where most scores are clustered at the lower end of the
curve, with a few very high scores creating a long "tail" to the right. The mean is greater than the median,
and the median is greater than the mode.
Negatively Skewed Distribution: A distribution where most scores are clustered at the upper end of the
curve, with a few very low scores creating a long "tail" to the left. The mean is less than the median, and
the median is less than the mode.
Scatterplot: A graphed cluster of dots, each which represents the values of two variables. The slope of
the dots represents the direction (+ or -) of the relationship while the amount of "scatter" suggests the
strength of the correlation.
Correlation Coefficient (r): A statistical measure of the extent to which two factors vary together,
and thus how well either factor predicts the other. The statistic, r, is always between -1.00 and +1.00.
A Positive correlation coefficient means that as one variable increases, so does the other.
A Negative correlation coefficient means that as one variable increases, the other decreases (i.e., an
inverse relationship).
Statistical Significance: Probability that the results obtained were due to chance (represented by the
value of 'p').
In psychology, it is standard that a p-value of .05 or less means that results were statistically significant
(i.e., not due to chance).
AP PSYCHOLOGY
NEURAL SYSTEMS
REVIEW GUIDE
The Nervous system
I: Central Nervous System
a) Brain
b) Spinal Cord
II. Peripheral Nervous System
a) Somatic (skeletal) nervous system:
Voluntary behaviors
b) Autonomic: Self-regulation of internal
organs and glands.
1. sympathetic NS: arousing
Pupils dilate, HR, BP, respiration increase,
and digestive processes slow down.
Fight or flight response.
2. parasympathetic NS: calming-opposite
of sympathetic nervous system response.
Three types of Neurons
1. Sensory (afferent) neurons of the peripheral NS take incoming sensory information to the spinal cord
and brain.
2. Motor (efferent) neurons take information from the spinal cord out to muscles and glands.
3. Interneurons are neurons in the central NS (brain & spinal cord). They communicate with each other
and connect the sensory and motor neurons
The Simple Reflex
A simple reflex involves afferent (sensory) neurons carrying sensory information to the spinal
cord. Interneurons connect the afferent neurons to the efferent (motor) neurons. A reflex does not
involve the brain.
The Neuron
Soma (cell body): Contains nucleus and support systems
Dendrites: Tree-like branches that receive information from other neurons
Axon: Long fiber that passes info to other neurons
Myelin: Fatty substance on some axons--speeds up neural transmissions
Terminal Branches of Axon: Form junctions with other cells and contain synaptic vesicles
Synaptic vesicles: sac-like structures that contain neurotransmitters
Synapse: The tiny gap between the sending and receiving neurons
Neural Networks: Clusters of neurons that work together and become strengthened with use.
Neural Communication: Neurons communicate via an electrochemical process
Electrical Process
Resting Potential: Neuron is at rest and is said to be Polarized (-70 milivolts). The inside of the cell is
more negative than the surrounding fluid.
Action Potential: When stimulated at or above threshold, the cell becomes depolarized (+50 milivolts)as
positively charged sodium ions rush into the cell. The neuron has now "fired". It is an all-or-nothing
response. The cell then returns to its polarized state.
Refractory Period: For 1/1000 of a second after firing, the cell cannot fire again. This is Somewhat like
a camera flash recharging itself.
Chemical Process
1. When the action potential reaches the terminal buttons on the ends of the terminal branches, it causes
the synaptic vesicles to release neurotransmitters into the synapse.
2. The neurotransmitters then bind to receptor sites on the receiving neuron (like a key fitting into a
lock). Some neurotransmitters are excitatory (create a new action potential) while others are inhibitory.
3. After neurotransmitters have done their job, they may be destroyed by other chemicals released into the
synapse. Or, reuptake may occur.
Reuptake: Neurotransmitters are reabsorbed by the sending neuron and recycled for future use.
Neurotransmitters
Acetylcholine (Ach): Muscle movement, learning, and memory. An undersupply is involved in
Alzheimer's disease.
Dopamine: Involved in learning, attention, and emotion. An Excess dopamine is involved in
schizophrenia.
Serotonin: Affects mood, hunger, sleep, and arousal. An undersupply is linked to depression.
Norepinephrine: Helps control alertness and arousal. An undersupply can lead to depression. An
oversupply can lead to manic symptoms.
GABA (gamma-aminobutytic acid): Major inhibitory neurotransmitter. An undersupply can lead to
tremors, seizures, and insomnia.
Glutamate: Major excitatory neurotransmitter; involved in memory. Oversupply can overstimulate the
brain leading to migraines (this is why some people avoid MSG in food).
Endorphins: natural opiate-like neurotransmitter linked to pain control and pleasure.
Drugs and Neurotransmitters
Agonists: Drugs that are so similar to a neurotransmitter that they can mimic its effects-or-they may
block reuptake of a neurotransmitter.
Antagonists: Drugs that inhibit a neurotransmitter’s release-or-they may occupy the receptor site on the
receiving neuron, thus blocking the neurotransmitter form binding.
Hypothalamus: Controls pituitary gland
Pituitary: Secretes growth hormone and many other hormones that affect other glands.
Thyroid: Affects metabolism
Parathyroids: Regulate calcium levels in the blood
Adrenal Glands: Secrete the hormones epinephrine and norepinephrine which trigger the "fight or flight"
response.
Pancreas: Regulates glucose levels in the blood through the release of insulin.
Ovaries and Testes: Secrete female and male sex hormones.
DRUGS
Psychoactive Drug: A chemical substance that alters perceptions and mood.
Tolerance: The diminishing effect with regular use of the same dose of a drug; requiring the user to take
larger and larger doses in order to obtain the same effect.
Withdrawal: The discomfort and distress that follow discontinuing the use of an addictive drug.
Physical Dependence: A physiological need for a drug, marked by unpleasant withdrawal symptoms
when the drug is discontinued.
Psychological Dependence: A psychological need to use a drug, such as to relieve negative emotions.
Psychoactive Drugs
Depressants: Drugs (such as alcohol, barbiturates, and opiates) that reduce neural activity and slow body
functions.
Barbiturates: drugs that depress the activity of the CNS, reducing anxiety but impairing memory and
judgment.
Opiates: Opium and its derivatives (such as morphine and heroin); they depress neural activity,
temporarily lessening pain and anxiety.
Stimulants: Drugs (such as caffeine, nicotine, and the more powerful amphetamines and cocaine) that
excite neural activity and speed up body functions.
Amphetamines: Drugs that stimulate neural activity, causing speeded-up body functions and
associated energy and mood changes.
Ecstasy (MDMA): A synthetic stimulant and mild hallucinogen. It produces short-term
euphoria. However, it harms serotonin-producing neurons causing long-term changes in mood and
cognitions.
Hallucinogens: Psychedelic ("mind-altering") drugs, such as LSD and marijuana, that distort perceptions
and may evoke sensory images in the absence of sensory input (i.e., hallucinations).
THC: The major active ingredient in marijuana.
AP PSYCHOLOGY
THE BRAIN
REVIEW GUIDE
The Brain
Studying the Brain
Phineas Gage
Lesions: Destruction of brain tissue
Studying the Brain (cont.)
EEG (electroencephalogram): amplified recordings of brain wave activity.
CT (computerized tomography) scan: X-ray photos of slices of the brain. CT (or CAT) scans show
structures within the brain but not functions of the brain.
PET (positron emission tomography): visual display of brain activity that detects where a radioactive
form of glucose is being used while the brain performs certain tasks.
MRI (magnetic resonance imaging): technique that uses magnetic fields and radio waves to see structures
within the brain.
fMRI (functional MRI): allows us to see where oxygen is being used in the brain while various tasks are
being performed.
Structure and Function of the Brain
Brainstem: Oldest area of the brain. Also called the reptilian brain.
1. Medulla: the base of the brainstem; controls heartbeat and breathing.
2. Reticular Formation: A neural network within the brainstem; important in arousal including sleep.
Thalamus: Sits on top of the brainstem; received all incoming sensory information (except smell) and
sends it to the appropriate part of the brain for further processing.
Cerebellum: The "little brain" attached to the back of the brainstem; it helps coordinate voluntary
movement and balance.
The Limbic System: A doughnut-shaped structure between the brainstem and the cerebral
hemispheres. It is considered the "seat of emotion" and is also involved in motivated behavior like eating,
drinking, and sex.
1. Amygdala: Involved in rage and fear as well as emotional memories.
2. Hippocampus: Involved in memory
3: Hypothalamus: Involved in eating, drinking, and sexual behavior. It also controls the endocrine
(hormonal system) via the pituitary gland. It is sometimes referred to as "the pleasure center" of the
brain.
Structures of the Brain (cont.)
Cerebral Cortex: The intricate fabric of interconnected neural cells that covers the cerebral
hemispheres. The ultimate information-processing center of the brain.
Lobes of the Brain
Frontal Lobes: Contain the motor cortex which control voluntary movement. In the LEFT frontal lobe
is Broca's Area which controls our ability to speak.
Parietal Lobes: Contain the somatosensory cortex which registers bodily sensations (touch).
Temporal Lobes: Contain the primary auditory cortex (audition) and areas for the senses of smell
(olfaction) and taste (gustatory sense). The LEFT temporal lobe contains Wernicke's Area which
control language comprehension and expression.
Occipital Lobes: Contains the Primary Visual Cortex.
Association Areas: Areas of the cortex not involved in sensory or motor functions. They are involved in
higher mental functions such as learning, remembering, thinking, planning, and language. About 75-80%
of the brain is composed of association areas.
Hemispheres of the Brain
Virtually all activities require BOTH hemispheres. However, the Left Hemisphere receives sensory
information from the right side of the body and controls movement of the right side of the body. It is also
involved in language, science, math, etc. The Right Hemisphere receives sensory information from the
left side of the body and control movement of the right side of the body. It is involved in music, artistic
ability, and spatial skills.
AP PSYCHOLOGY
MODULE 11
REVIEW GUIDE
Chromosomes: threadlike structures made of DNA molecules that contain the genes.
Genes: the biochemical units of heredity that make up the chromosomes; a segment of DNA capable of
synthesizing a protein.
DNA: (deoxyribonucleic acid) a complex molecule that makes up the chromosomes. (A DNA molecule
has two strands-forming a "double helix").
Genome: the complete instructions for making an organism, consisting of all the genetic material in its
chromosomes.
Evolutionary Psychology
Natural Selection: the principle that, among the range of all inherited traits, those that lead to increased
reproduction and survival will most likely be passed on to future generations.
Mutation: a random error in gene replication which is the source of all genetic diversity.
Evolutionary Psychology: the study of the evolution of behavior and the mind using the principles of
natural selection.
Behavior Genetics: the study of the relative power and limits of genetic and environmental influences on
behavior.
Environment: every nongenetic influence, from prenatal nutrition to the people and things around us.
*Behavior geneticists try to determine the relative impact of nature (genetics) and nurture (environment)
by doing twin and adoption studies.
Identical Twins: twins who develop from a single fertilized egg that splits in two, creating two
genetically identical individuals.
Fraternal Twins: twins who develop from separate eggs. They are no more similar, genetically, than
brothers and sisters, but they share the same fetal environment.
Temperament
Temperament: a person's characteristic emotional reactivity and intensity.
*Thomas & Chess identified three distinct temperament styles in babies as young as 2 months old.
10%--Difficult babies: irregular rhythmicity, withdraw from new situations, slow-to-adapt to new
situations, & intense reactions
15%--Slow-to-warm-up babies: low activity level, withdraw from new situations, slow-to-adapt, low
intensity of reactions, & negative mood.
40%--Easy babies: Opposite of difficult babies.
Temperament seems quite stable throughout life and the same percentages are found in other
cultures. Thus, it is believed that temperament is genetically based.
Heritability: the amount of variation among individuals that we can attribute to the differences in their
genes.
*For example: if identical twins are found to be different in some way, the heritability of that trait is
0%. The difference can't be due to their genes, because they have identical genes. Any differences
between them must be due to their non-shared environments.
BIOLOGICAL PROBLEMS
Turner’s Syndrome – Females with only one sex chromosome (XO) They typically are short with a
webbed neck, lack ovaries and fail to develop secondary sex characteristics at puberty
Klinefelter’s Syndrome – Males with an XXY zygote. Male secondary characteristics fail to develop,
but breast tissue does. These males tend to be passive
Down Syndrome – The presence of three copies of chromosome-21. These individuals are typically
mentally retarded and have a round head, a flat nasal bridge, a protruding tongue, small round ears, a fold
in the eye lid and poor muscle tone and concentration
The genetic makeup of a trait is called its genotype. The expression of the genes is called its phenotype.
For traits determined by one pair of genes, if they are the same (homozygous), the individual expresses
that phenotypic characteristic. If the genes are different, the one that is expressed is called the dominant
gene; the hidden gene is the recessive gene.
Numerous recessive genes are responsible for syndromes in homozygous condition
Tay-Sachs – produces progressive loss of nervous function and death in a baby.
Albinism – failure to synthesize or store pigment. Also involves abnormal nerve pathways to the brain,
resulting in quivering eyes and the inability to perceive depth
Phenylketonuria (PKU) – severe, irreversible brain damage unless the baby is fed a special diet low in
phenylalanine within 30 days of birth. Infant lacks an enzyme to process this amino acid which can build
up and poison cells of the nervous system.
Huntington’s Disease – a dominant gene defect that involves degeneration of the nervous system.
Symptoms include forgetfulness, tremors, jerky motions, loss of the ability to talk.
Recessive genes for color blindness are located on the X chromosome with no corresponding gene on the
Y chromosome. Because this gene is located on the sex chromosome, it is called a sex-linked trait. Color
blindness is more frequent in males than in females.
AP PSYCHOLOGY
MODULES 12 & 38
REVIEW GUIDE
Culture: the enduring behaviors, ideas, attitudes, and traditions shared by a large group of people and
transmitted from one generation to the next.
Norm: the understood rules for accepted and expected behavior.
Personal Space: the buffer zone we like to maintain around our bodies.
Memes: self-replicating ideas, fashions, and innovations passed from person to person.
Gender
X- chromosome: the sex chromosome found in both males and females. Women have two, men have
one.
Y-chromosome: the sex chromosome found only in males. When paired with an X-chromosome from the
mother, it produces a male child.
Testosterone: the most important of the male sex hormones. Both males and females have it, but males
have much more. It stimulates the growth of the male sex organs during in the fetus and the development
of male sex characteristics during puberty.
Role: a set of expectations (norms) about a social position, defining how those in the position should
behave.
Gender Role: a set of expected behaviors for males and females.
Gender Identity: One's sense of being either male or female.
Gender-typing: the acquisition of a traditional masculine or feminine role.
Social Learning Theory: (developed by Bandura) the theory that we learn social behavior by:
1. Being punished and rewarded for our behaviors. AND
2. By observing and imitating others.
Gender Schema Theory: the theory that children learn from their cultures a concept of what it means to
be male and female and that they adjust their behavior accordingly.
Famous sex survey was done by Kinsey in the 1940’s. It showed varied sexual behavior. However there
was bias – sampling and leading questions used.
Sexual Response Cycle – Stages of sexual responding that includes excitement, plateau, organism and
resolution (homeostasis)
Refractory period – resting period after orgasm during which a man cannot achieve another orgasm –
can last from minutes to a day
Sexual disorders – something that impairs sexual arousal or functioning
Hormones and Sexual Behavior:
1. Estrogen – greater in women than men. Fluctuates during a menstrual cycle
a. Women’s sexual desire is linked to testosterone levels more than estrogen
2. Testosterone – greater in men than women. Creates male sex organs in the fetus and sex
characteristics at puberty. Testosterone influences sexual desire in both men and women.
a. Hypothalamus directs the pituitary gland which directs testes/ovaries to produce
testosterone
Environmental Influence
1. Media images of erotic material can arouse both males and females
2. Media images of ideal beauty also make us less satisfied with mates
3. Media images that associate sex and violence desensitize us to violence against women
(race/spousal abuse)
Brain Influence
1. Imagination/fantasy/memories can stimulate sexual arousal
Culture’s Influence
1. Rates of premarital sex and number of children a couple has is influenced by the norms of the
culture
a. Western cultures have much higher teen intercourse rates than Asian and Arab cultures
2. Attitudes can also vary with time
a. In 2000, 50% of 18 year olds have had sex vs. 1800’s, 3% have had sex)
Contributing Factors to Teen Pregnancy and STDs (higher in US)
1. Ignorance
a. Lack of knowledge regarding menstrual cycles and proper contraception
b. Sex ed classes do not increase sexual promiscuity among teens
2. Guilt
a. If people perceive sex as improper, they will not take precaution and get birth control
3. Little Communication about sex and contraception with adults
4. Alcohol use – diminish inhibitions
5. Mass media – images of risky sex as models of typical behavior
Correlations with LOW rates of teen sex:
High IQ / Religious Ideology / Volunteerism and Community Service
Sexual Orientation
1. Higher rates of depression and risk of suicide among gay people
2. Not associated with a psychological disorder
a. Dropped by APA in 1973 from the DSM III
3. Little evidence that sexual conversion can occur with therapy
4. High correlation with certain careers
a. Poets/Writers/Artists/Musicians
5. Not enough evidence to prove if nature or nurture is more responsible for being gay
a. Some studies point to nurture – cultural acceptance/role models
b. Some studies point to nature
i. Hypothalamus/Corpus Callosum differences
ii. Identical twins have higher correlations
iii. Prenatal hormone influence
c. Biological causes are the belief of most psychiatrists today and 43% of the population
d. Those who favor biological cause also show more tolerance and acceptance of gay rights
AP PSYCHOLOGY
STATES OF CONSCIOUSNESS
REVIEW GUIDE
Consciousness: Our awareness of ourselves and our environment.
Biological Rhythms: Periodic physiological fluctuations.
Circadian Rhythm: The biological clock. It involves regular body rhythms (ex: temperature & sleep)
that occur on a 24-hour cycle.
STAGES OF SLEEP
Stage 1: Alpha waves; hypnogogic hallucinations; sleep talking; hypnic jerk; slowdown of biological
functions (e.g., blood pressure, heart rate, respiration) & a decrease in temperature.
Stage 2: Waves are slower (see some theta waves); sleep spindles; K-complexes; sleep talking; biological
functions continue to slow.
Stage 3: Transition stage. See first signs of delta waves; biological functions continue to slow.
Stage 4: Deep sleep. All delta waves; bedwetting & sleep walking most likely. Biological functions are
at their lowest.
After stage 4, the sleeper moves back to stages 3, stage 2, & then into REM sleep.
REM Sleep: Rapid eye movement; dreaming; erections in males; paralysis. Also called "paradoxical
sleep" because while the person is totally asleep, there biological function and brain waves appear more
like a person who is awake.
A full sleep-cycle takes about 90 minutes. As the cycles continue throughout the night, stage 4 sleep
gets shorter and REM sleep gets longer.
SLEEP THEORIES
1. Possibly certain chemicals depleted during the day are restored during sleep.
2. A build-up of "s-factor" during the day causes sleep at night.
3. Pituitary gland more active during deep sleep. So, sleep may be involved in growth process. (Babies
and young people spend more time in deep sleep than older people).
4. Evolutionary view: Sleeping when it was dark kept us safe.
DREAM THEORIES
Freudian Theory: Dreams help disguise unconscious conflicts and motives.
Manifest Content: According to Freud, the remembered storyline of a dream.
Latent Content: According to Freud, the underlying "meaning" of a dream.
Activation-synthesis Theory: Dreams spring from the mind's relentless effort to make sense of random
visual bursts of electrical activity which originate in the brainstem and are given their emotional tone as
they pass through the limbic system.
Information Processing Theory: The parts of the brain active when we learn something are similarly
active later when we sleep and dream.
Cognitive Development Theory: Periodic stimulation during dreaming helps form neural
connections. Especially important in infants.
Physiological Function Theory: Neural activity during REM sleep provides periodic stimulation of the
brain.
Regardless, if we don't get enough REM sleep, we will go into
REM Rebound: The tendency for REM sleep to increase following a period of REM deprivation.
SLEEP DISORDERS
Insomnia: Recurring problems in falling or staying asleep.
Narcolepsy: Disorder characterized by uncontrollable sleep attacks. The sufferer may lapse directly into
REM sleep at inopportune time.
Sleep Apnea: Disorder characterized by temporary cessation of breathing during sleep and momentary
awakenings throughout the night.
Night Terror: Disorder characterized by high arousal and an appearance of being terrified. Unlike
nightmares, these occur during stage 4 sleep and are typically not remembered.
HYPNOSIS
Hypnosis: A social interaction in which one person (the hypnotist) suggests to another person (the
subject) that certain perceptions, feelings, thoughts, or behaviors will spontaneously occur.
Posthypnotic Amnesia: Supposed inability to recall what one experienced during hypnosis; induced by
the hypnotist's suggestion.
Posthypnotic Suggestion: A suggestion, made during hypnosis, to be carried out after the subject is no
longer hypnotized; used by some clinicians to control undesired symptoms and behaviors (e.g., eat less,
quit smoking, feel less anxiety, etc.).
Hypnosis does not improve memory. In fact, it is likely to contaminate our memories. It is, however,
useful in relieving PAIN. Possibly due to dissociation or a "split in consciousness". While part of the
person is still aware of the pain, the conscious part of the person is not.
Theories of Hypnosis
1. Divided Consciousness Theory: Suggests that dissociation occurs during hypnosis. A "split" in
consciousness occurs. "Part" of the person is unaware of what is occurring, but another "part" is
aware. This part is called:
The Hidden Observer: Hilgard's term describing a hypnotized person's awareness of experiences,
such as pain, that seem to go unreported during hypnosis.
2. Social Influence Theory: The subject simply becomes caught up in the "role" of being a hypnotized
person. It involves role-playing, conformity, and obedience.
AP PSYCHOLOGY
HUNGER & STRESS/HEALTH
REVIEW GUIDE
HUNGER
Glucose: the form of sugar that circulates in the blood and provides the major source of energy for body
tissues. When blood glucose levels are low, we feel hungry.
Orexin: When blood-glucose is low, the lateral hypothalamus releases orexin, which makes us even more
hungry.
Lateral Hypothalamus: the "hunger center" of the brain. When blood glucose is low, the lateral
hypothalamus kicks on, releases orexin and we feel hungry.
Ventromedial Hypothalamus: the "satiety center" of the brain. When blood glucose is high (after we
have eaten), the ventromedial hypothalamus kicks in and we no longer feel hungry.
Insulin: Substance released from the pancreas. When blood glucose rises, insulin is released to allow the
glucose to move from the blood to the tissues of the body.
Leptin: Hormone secreted by fat cells. This causes the brain to increase metabolism and decrease hunger
Set Point: the point at which an individual's "weight thermostat" is supposedly set. When the body falls
below this weight, an increase in hunger and a lowered metabolic rate may act to restore the lost weight.
Basal Metabolic Rate: the body's resting rate of energy expenditure.
Eating Disorders
Anorexia Nervosa: an eating disorder in which a normal-weight person (usually an adolescent female)
diets and becomes significantly underweight (15% or more), yet, still feeling fat, continues to diet.
Bulimia Nervosa: an eating disorder characterized by episodes of overeating, usually of high-calorie
foods, followed by vomiting, laxative use, fasting, or excessive exercise. These individuals are not
typically underweight.
STRESS AND HEALTH
Stress- physical & psychological response to events that are perceived as threatening or challenge a
person’s normal functioning (homeostasis).
Stressor – any physical or psychological challenge that threatens homeostasis and creates stress.
*physical stressors =injury, noise, overcrowding, excess heat or cold, ..etc.
*psychological stressors = interpersonal conflict, isolation, traumatic events, time- pressure,
per pressure, high standards of achievement..etc.
COMMON RESPONSES TO STRESSORS
a) Physical- activation of the sympathetic nervous system (fight or flight), adrenal gland stimulated
and releases epinephrine (adrenaline), and the hormone cortisol,. These in turn increase blood sugar,
heart rate, breathing rate, pupils dilate, & muscles tense.
b) Emotional – anxiety, anger, fear, panic, frustration, nervousness, sadness, apathy, powerless.
c) Behavioral – (action taken in response to stress) nervous habits, increased smoking or drinking, drug
abuse, fatigue, overeating, teeth grinding, aggression, ..etc.
d) Cognitive – difficulty concentrating, unclear thinking, poor decision making, distrust, poor memory.
Types of STRESSORS
a) Psychological Conflict (LEWIN) – This is when a choice is required between actions that are
perceived as incompatible. Lewin said we are motivated to approach desirable or pleasant
outcomes and avoid undesirable or unpleasant outcomes.
Types of Conflict:
 APPROACH –APPROACH (win-win) – This is when a person must choose between
one of two attractive goals. Ex. You can either go to a ball game or to a concert, but
you cannot do both. (low stress)
 AVOIDANCE-AVOIDANCE – This is when a person must choose between two
unattractive options, or the “lesser of two evils”. Ex. You need to make a choice
between cleaning your room or studying for an exam. (high stress)
 APPROACH-AVOIDANCE – This is when a person must choose a single goal that
has both attractive and unattractive features. Ex. You want to purchase a new type
of phone that has all the things you want on it but it costs more than you really can
afford. (highest stress)
 DOUBLE APPROACH –AVOIDANCE – This is when a person must choose
between two alternatives, both of which have positive and negative features, Ex.
Choosing between two colleges that both have good and bad sides to them.
b) Everyday hassles (Lazarus) – minor everyday occurrences that can be distressing like traffic, time
demands at home or work, hot weather, tons of homework.
c) Poverty and low economic status.
d) Discrimination & prejudice towards you.
e) Life Changes – moving, starting at a new school, getting married or divorced, graduation,
retirement, death or loved one.
f) Catastrophes – large-scale events like a tornado, flood, war zone, earthquake…
HANS SELYE 'S GENERAL ADAPTATION SYNDROME (GAS) 3 phase response to stress.
Phase 1 - ALARM REACTION - turn on sympathetic nervous system - high emotional reaction!
Phase 2 - RESISTANCE - outpouring of additional hormones from adrenal gland - you cope and fight
the challenge facing you while body is on high alert.
Phase 3 - EXHAUSTION - deplete body's energy /wear and tear/ physical collapse
Effects of CHRONIC STRESS: prolonged activation of stress response.
a) can create PSYCHOPHYSIOLOGICAL ILLNESS –physical illness brought on by stress that
might include: headaches, high blood pressure, rashes, insomnia, ulcers, diarrhea, allergies, ..etc.
b) can lead to depression, anxiety, SHRINKING OF THE HIPPOCAMPUS (brain structure needed
for long term memory).
c) makes IMMUNE SYSTEM less efficient so white blood cells or leukocytes don't fight bacteria &
virus. (ADER & Cohen) discovered that classical conditioning could cause a rat’s immune system to
shut down to the taste of sugared water.
d) can lead to high blood pressure and HEART DISEASE (major cause of death in US).
e) can aggravate an existing disease or interfere with recovery ( headaches, asthma, wound repair,
cancer growth, progression from HIV to AIDS ..)
STRESS AND HEART DISEASE
Friedman & Rosenman found that:
a) tax accountants had higher levels of cholesterol during the stressful tax season.
b) TYPE A personalities were more likely to have heart attacks than TYPE B Personalities.
TYPE A = hard driving, aggressive/hostile, impatient, easily angered, competitive, urgency, quantity
is more important than quality.
TYPE B = laid back, easy going, calm, relaxed, quality more important that speed and quantity.
POSITIVE ASPECTS OF STRESS
Kobasa – “hardiness” – if we perceive stressors as a challenge that we wish to overcome then stress
can have a positive effect on us. It will help us thrive and excel and build self-esteem giving us a
sense of purpose and lead to growth.
VARIABLES THAT HELP US DEAL WITH STRESS
1. CONTROL – if a person has or just believes that he has control over the stressors in his life then
he is more likely to avoid the negative physical effects of stress. ( internal locus of control)
( Famous study of patients in a nursing home by Rodin & Langer)
2. Social Support Group – family, church, friends, colleagues, .etc.
3. Optimistic style of life – views events in a positive manner with desirable expectation for the
future.
4. Change COGNITIVE outlook – change the way we think about stressors –reframe the problem as a
challenge rather than a threat.
5.Biofeedback – Using feedback about you biological state (blood pressure) in order to control it. Ex.
Wearing an electronic device that tells you your blood pressure while you practice relaxed breathing.
6. Relaxation therapies – meditation, yoga, ..etc.
AP PSYCHOLOGY
ABNORMAL PSYCHOLOGY
REVIEW GUIDE
Abnormal Behavior
Definition: Behavior that is judged to be atypical, disturbing, maladaptive and unjustifiable.
Perspectives:
Biological (medical model): Abnormal behavior has a biochemical or physiological basis.
Diathesis-stress model: people biologically or genetically predisposed to a disorder can develop that
disorder when exposed to stress.
Psychoanalytic Model : Abnormal behavior is a result of unconscious conflicts.
Behavioral Model : Abnormal behavior is a result of faulty learning.
Cognitive Model : Abnormal behavior is a result or irrational or maladaptive ways of thinking.
Classifying Psychological Disorders
DSM-IV: The American Psychological Association’s (APA) Diagnostic & Statistical Manual of Mental
Disorders
Anxiety Disorders
Generalized Anxiety Disorder : continual tenseness & nervousness.
Panic Disorder : intense fear or terror that seems to come “out of the blue”.
Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder : person is compelled to think disturbing thoughts (obsessions) and
perform senseless rituals (compulsions)
Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder : anxiety & nightmares result from some disturbing incident from the
past.
Phobic Disorder : irrational fear & avoidance of a specific object or situation.
Social Phobia (ex: public speaking)
Simple Phobia (snakes, heights, etc.)
Agoraphobia : fear of leaving home or being in open spaces.
Explaining Anxiety Disorders
Behavioral (learning) Model:
classical conditioning, operant conditioning (reinforcement), generalization, observational learning
(Bandura)
Biological Model: evolution, genetics, physiology
Psychoanalytic : anxiety is a result of repressed impulses that begin to come into consciousness.
Somatoform Disorders
Somatization Disorder : vague, recurring physical symptoms for which no medical cause can be found.
Conversion Disorder : specific and dramatic physical disability for which no medical cause can be found
(e.g., blindness, and paralysis).
Hypochondriasis : small & insignificant symptoms are interpreted as signs of serious illness.
Dissociative Disorders
Disorders in which some aspect of the personality seems separated or fragmented from the rest.
Dissociative Amnesia : selective memory loss often brought about by severe stress.
Dissociative Fugue : amnesia accompanied by flight from one’s home and identity.
Dissociative Identity Disorder (multiple personality disorder): more than one personality seems to be
present in a single individual.
Major Depressive Disorder : two or more weeks during which a person is overwhelmed by feelings of
sadness, apathy, worthlessness and guilt.
Mania : state in which a person is overly excited, hyperactive, and optimistic.
Bipolar Disorder : the person alternates between periods of depression & mania.
Explaining Affective Disorders
Biological Model:
Genetics—runs in families, higher concordance rate in identical than fraternal twins.
Biochemical----serotonin & norepinephrine levels in the brain are low during periods of depression &
high during periods of mania.
Behavioral Model:
operant conditioning—reinforcement, learned helplessness (Seligman)
Cognitive Model:
negative & irrational attributions— explain bad events in terms that are stable, global, and internal
(Beck) Depression’s vicious cycle: stress--> negative explanations-->depressed mood-->cognitive &
behavioral changes-->stress
Personality Disorders
A person exhibits inflexible & maladaptive ways of thinking and behaving that impair social functioning.
Schizoid : withdrawn, lacks feelings for others.
Paranoid : inappropriately suspicious and mistrustful of others.
Narcissistic : exaggerated sense of self- importance & need for constant attention.
Antisocial : violent, criminal, or unethical behavior due to lack of conscious.
Borderline : instability in mood, self-image, & personal relationships. Self-mutilation, impulsiveness,
sexual promiscuity, substance abuse, “splitting”, & suicidal threats
Schizophrenic Disorders
Disturbances in thought, communication, emotions, & perceptions. May include:
Hallucinations: false sensory perceptions
Delusions: false beliefs about reality
Positive Symptoms : incoherent speech, hallucinations, delusions, “strange” behavior
Negative Symptoms : motionlessness, stupor, lack of emotion (flat affect)
Schizophrenic Subtypes
Disorganized : bizarre speech & behavior— Flat or inappropriate affect.
Catatonic : disturbed motor behavior— immobility or excessive movement. Mimicking of others’ speech
& movements or “waxy flexibility”.
Paranoid : excessive suspiciousness & complex, bizarre delusions.
Undifferentiated : symptoms from more than one of the above categories.
Development of Schizophrenia
Acute (reactive) : Sudden onset—best prognosis.
Chronic (process) : Slower development over a long period of time—worse prognosis
Explaining Schizophrenia
Brain anatomy: large ventricles & shrinkage of cerebral tissue
Genetics:
more common in people with a close relative who has the disorder (e.g., 50% concordance in identical
twins, 16% in fraternal twins.)
Prenatal virus: (still under study)
Biochemical: too many dopamine receptors in the brain
AP PSYCHOLOGY
THERAPY
STUDY GUIDE
Psychotherapy: The treatment of behavioral and emotional disorders using psychological techniques.
Involves an interaction between a trained therapist and someone who suffers from psychological
difficulties. It is usually emotionally charged and confidential.
I. Psychoanalysis (Freud)
Goal: Bring repressed motives, desires, impulses, & conflicts into consciousness so that the person can
deal with them.
Method:
free association – patient relaxes and says whatever comes to mind, no matter how trivial or
embarrassing
interpretations by the therapist – suggestions made by the analyst about the meaning of dreams or
issues of resistance to help give the patient insight to the unconscious
Associated Terms:
resistance – When you block anxiety laden material from consciousness by going blank and using
repression
transference – patient transfers emotions he has for others onto his therapist
catharsis – Need for closure
II. Humanistic Therapies
Designed to help clients attain self-fulfillment by boosting self-awareness & self-acceptance.
Person-Centered Therapy (Carl Rogers): A non-directive form of therapy that calls for the therapist to
exhibit acceptance and empathy for the client in order for the client to become fully-functioning.
Method:
active listening – empathetic listening in which the listener echoes, restates, and clarifies
a. Paraphrasing
b. Clarifying
c. Reflecting feelings
unconditional positive regard – acceptance no matter what the person says or does
Gestalt Therapy (Fritz Perls): Form of therapy where the therapist emphasizes the wholeness of the
personality and attempts to reawaken people's emotions in the here-and-now.
Methods:
Take responsibility for feelings by saying "I choose" rather than, "I have to" or "I want" rather than "I
need". Always speak in the first person
III. Behavioral Therapies
Therapies that use operant or classical conditioning principles to change behavior.
Classical conditioning:
A. Counterconditioning: aims to condition new behaviors in response to stimuli that once elicited
unwanted behaviors.
B. Aversive conditioning: aims to associate an unpleasant state with an unwanted behavior (often used to
treat addictions)
C. Systematic Desensitization: associate a relaxed, pleasant state with gradually increasing anxiety
provoking stimuli (excellent for treating phobias)
D. Exposure Therapy (FLOODING) – uses idea of habituation by repeatedly exposing you to a stimulus
or situation that causes anxiety until you get used to it and
extinction occurs. (Sticky jam on hands of an OCD patient afraid
of dirt)
Operant Conditioning Techniques:
Behavior modification: aims to use positive & negative reinforcement to change behavior.
Token economies - Use secondary reinforcers (plastic token) to shape and change behavior. All
behavior is rewarded with tokens which are cashed in for desired items
IV. Cognitive Therapy
Therapy aimed at changing a person's irrational thoughts and perceptions in order to achieve a change in
behavior
Rational Emotive Therapy (Albert Ellis): Confrontational therapy where the therapist actively challenges
the client's self-defeating beliefs and cognitions. Problems stem from self-defeating thoughts. The
therapist has the client confront irrational thoughts by discussing his activating cause (A), beliefs (B) and
their consequences (C)  think ABC. Very directive using confrontation, challenge and argument. It
helps the person become more rational. Therapist will dispute (D) the belief and then evaluate (E) how
effectively it works.
Beck's Cognitive Therapy for Depression: Less confrontational than RET, but same idea. The aim is to
change the maladaptive beliefs of depressed patients by gently helping them see how irrational their
cognitions truly are. The CT therapist strives to create a therapeutic climate of collaboration that
encourages the client to contribute to the evaluation of the logic and accuracy of automatic thoughts. Uses
homework – record automatic thoughts. Used successfully with depression
V. Group and Family Therapies – The person’s unwanted behavior is influenced by other family
members. Works with the entire family, not just the client.
Examples: Family therapy, Marital therapy, Support groups, Self-help groups
Effectiveness of Psychotherapy - 75% of clients feel satisfied with the outcome of their therapy
Statistical research (using meta-analysis) suggest that approximately 2/3 of patients significantly improve
with therapy.
Other studies show that the average treated person is better off than 80% of untreated individuals.
Biomedical Therapies
Drug Therapies:
1. Antipsychotic drugs: used to treat schizophrenic and other psychotic disorders. These drugs block
dopamine receptors in the brain (e.g., thorazine, stelazine, clozaril). Side effects:
heavy sedation, tardive dyskinesia.
2. Anti-anxiety drugs: (e.g., Valium, Librium, Xanax) Effectively reduce anxiety and fears but are highly
addictive.
3. Antidepressant drugs: (e.g., Prozac, Zoloft, Paxil) These drugs block re-uptake of serotonin. This
increases the availability of serotonin in the brain. Other antidepressants block
reuptake of serotonin and norepinephrine. They, however, cause more side
effects (dry mouth, dizzy spells).
4. Lithium: Drug specifically used to treat the mood swings seen in bipolar disorder.
5. Electroconvulsive Therapy (ECT): Used to treat SEVERE depression. An electrical current is passed
through the brain of an anesthetized patient. Side effects: memory
loss
Biomedical Therapies (cont.)
Psychosurgery: Removal or destruction of brain tissue in order to change behavior.
Lobotomy: Rare procedure once used to calm violent or uncontrollable patients. Tissue in the prefrontal
lobes are destroyed. – No longer used
MISC.
Institutionalization: Placing people into a mental hospital to help treat their mental illnesses
Pros: Patients can be monitored carefully and closely. Patients are less likely to be a danger to themselves
and others.
Cons: the "self-fulfilling prophecy" may come into play. People continue to act and feel "sick" because
they believe they are sick. Staff members can interpret "normal" behavior as "abnormal"
(Rosenhan’s study). Also, the staff members (at many institutions) are overworked and underpaid.
Deinstitutionalization: The release of patients from hospitals (often in large numbers) due to political
pressures.
Pros: Patients are given a chance to live a "normal" life away from unwanted confinement.
Cons: Due to lack of federal and state funding, many patients are unsupervised. They may stop taking
their medication, have no social support, and may become a danger to themselves or others.
AP PSYCHOLOGY
DEVELOPMENT
REVIEW GUIDE
Developmental Psychology: the study of the physical, cognitive, and social changes throughout the
lifespan.
THREE BIG ISSUES
1. Nature/Nurture: How do our genetic inheritance (our nature) and our experience in our environment
(the nurture we receive) affect our development?
2. Continuity/Stages: Is development a gradual continuous process like riding an escalator, or does it
proceed through a sequence of separate stages, like climbing a staircase?
3. Stability/Change: Do our early personality traits persist through life, or do they change significantly as
we age?
PRENATAL DEVELOPMENT
Zygote: the fertilized egg; it enters a 2-week period of rapid cell division and develops into an embryo.
Embryo: the developing person from about 2 weeks following conception through the 2nd month.
Fetus: the developing person from 9 weeks after conception to birth.
Neonate: A newborn infant.
Teratogens: chemicals or viruses that can reach the embryo or fetus during prenatal development and
cause harm.
Fetal Alcohol Syndrome (FAS): physical and cognitive abnormalities in children caused by a pregnant
woman's drinking.
INFANCY & CHILDHOOD
Reflexes: sucking, grasping, & rooting (a baby's tendency when touched on the cheek, to open its mouth
and search for a nipple).
Maturation: biological growth processes that enable orderly changes in behavior, relative uninfluenced
by the environment.
Cognition: refers to all mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and
communicating.
Schema: according to Piaget, a concept or framework that organizes and interprets information. The lens
through which we see and interpret the world around us.
Assimilation: Interpreting one's new experiences in terms of one's existing schemas.
Accommodation: changing or adapting one's current schemas to incorporate new information and
experiences.
Piaget's Stages of Cognitive Development
1. Sensorimotor Stage: (birth to 2 yrs) stage during which infants know the world through their senses
and motor activities.
*Object Permanence: the awareness that things continue to exist even when they cannot be
perceived.
*Stranger Anxiety: the fear of strangers that infants commonly display, beginning by about 8
months of age.
2. Preoperational Stage: (2-7 yrs) stage during which a child learns to use language but does not yet
comprehend concrete logic.
*Egocentrism: the inability of the preoperational child to take another person's perspective or point
of view.
*Theory of Mind: people’s ideas about their own and other peoples' mental states.
3. Concrete Operational Stage: (7-11 yrs) stage during which children gain the mental operations that
allow them to logically about concrete events.
*Conservation: the principle that properties such as mass, volume, and number remain the same
despite changes in the forms of objects.
4. Formal Operational Stage: (begins about 12 yrs) stage during which people begin to think logically
about abstract events and develop the capacity for moral reasoning.
ATTACHMENT:
Attachment: an emotional tie with another person; shown in young children by their seeking closeness to
the caregiver and showing distress on separation.
Imprinting: As described by Lorenz, the process by which certain animals (not humans) form
attachments during a critical period early in life. It is mainly seen in birds (i.e., a newly hatched chick
will follow the first moving object it sees).
Critical Period: an optimal period shortly after birth when an organism's exposure to certain stimuli or
experiences produces proper development.
*In his study with baby monkeys and cloth or wire "mothers", Harlow found that body contact not
nourishment was most important in the formation of attachment in the baby monkeys.
PARENTING STYLES:
Authoritarian: Parents who impose rules and expect unquestioned obedience.
Permissive: Parents who submit to their children's desires, make few demands, and use little punishment.
Authoritative: Parents who are both demanding and responsive. They exert control not only by setting
rules and enforcing them but also by explaining the reasons and, especially with older children,
encouraging open discussion and allowing exceptions to the rules when appropriate.
ADOLESCENCE
Physical Development
Puberty: the period of sexual maturation, during which a person becomes capable of reproducing.
Primary Sex Characteristics: the body structures (ovaries, testes, and external genitalia) that make
sexual reproduction possible.
Secondary Sex Characteristics: nonreproductive sexual characteristics, such as female breasts and hips,
male voice quality, and body hair.
Menarche: the first menstrual period.
Cognitive Development: An important aspect of cognitive development in teens is the ability to form
moral judgments. Kohlberg outlined the stages of moral development:
Stages of Moral Development
Preconventional Morality: (before age 9) the morality of self-interest. Children obey either to avoid
punishment or to obtain rewards.
Conventional Morality: (early adolescence) upholding the laws and social rules simply because they are
laws and rules. Or obey rules to obtain social approval and avoid social disapproval.
Postconventional Morality: affirmation of people's agreed upon rights or following what one personally
perceives as basic ethical principles.
Social Development
Identity: one's sense of self; according to Erikson, the adolescent's task is to solidify a sense of self by
testing and integrating various roles.
Intimacy: according to Erikson, the ability to form close, loving relationships; a primary developmental
task in late adolescence and early adulthood.
ADULTHOOD & AGING
Menopause: the time of natural cessation of menstruation and decline in the woman's ability to
reproduce.
Alzheimer's Disease: a progressive, irreversible, and fatal brain disorder characterized by gradual
deterioration of memory, reasoning, language, and physical functioning
Cognitive Development
Aging and Intelligence
Cross-sectional Studies: researchers test and compare people of various ages. Early studies of this type
showed a significant decline in intelligence as a person aged.
Longitudinal Studies: researchers test and retest the same group of subjects over a long period of time.
Studies of this type do not show a decline in intelligent and are likely more accurate than the crosssectional studies.
Crystallized Intelligence: (measured as verbal IQ) one's accumulated knowledge and verbal skills; it
tends to increase with age.
Fluid Intelligence: (measures as non-verbal IQ) one's ability to reason speedily and abstractly; it tends to
decrease with age.
Social Development
Generativity vs Stagnation: According to Erikson, people in middle age discover a sense of contributing
to the world, usually through family or work, or they may feel a lack of purpose.
Integrity vs Despair: when reflecting on his or her life, the older adult may feel a sense of satisfaction or
failure.
DEATH AND DYING
Elizabeth Kubler-Ross identified 5 stages that terminally ill people may pass through. They are: denial,
anger, bargaining, depression, & acceptance
LANGUAGE
Language: our spoken, written, or signed words and the ways we combine them to communicate
meaning.
Phoneme: in spoken language, the smallest distinctive sound unit.
Morpheme: in language, the smallest unit that carries meaning; may be a word or part of a word (like a
prefix).
Grammar: a system of rules that enables us to communicate with language and understand each other.
Semantics: the set of rules by which we derive meaning from morphemes, words, and sentences; also the
study of meaning.
Syntax: the rules for combining words into grammatically sensible sentences.
Language Development
Babbling Stage: beginning at 3-4 months, the stage of speech development in which the infant
spontaneously utters various sounds at first unrelated to the household language.
One-word Stage: the stage in speech development, from about age 1 to age 2, during which a child
speaks mostly in single words.
Two-word Stage: beginning at about age 2, the stage in speech development during which a child speaks
mostly two-word statements.
Telegraphic Speech: speech stage in which a child speaks like a telegram--"go car"--using mostly nouns
and verbs and omitting "auxiliary words (like "the" and "a").
Explaining Language Development
Skinner & Operant Conditioning: Skinner believed that we can explain language development with
familiar behavioral principles, such as association (of the sights of things with the sounds of words);
imitation (of the words and syntax modeled by others); and reinforcement (with smiles and hugs when the
child says something right). In other words, NURTURE plays the biggest role in the development of
language.
Chomsky & Inborn Universal Grammar: While linguist Noam Chomsky agreed that we do "learn" the
language in which we are raised, he pointed out that children generate all sorts of sentences they have
never heard and, therefore could not be imitating. Additionally, many of the errors young children make
result from overgeneralization of grammatical rules, such as adding -ed to make the past tense (e.g., "I
holded the baby" or "I runned to the store"). They are certainly not imitating parents when they make
these errors. Syntax seems to be particular "hard-wired". You will not hear children say things like, "She
an apple ate."
THINKING & LANGUAGE
Linguist Benjamin Whorf contended that language determines the way we think.
Linguistic Relativity Hypothesis or Linguistic Determination: Whorf's hypothesis that language
determines the way we think.
Animals & Language
Honeybees communicate with other worker bees by engaging in an intricate "dance". The dance in forms
other bees of the direction and distance of a food source.
Primates have learned to communicate with American Sign Language or by using symbols. The most
well-known are Washoe (a chimp) and KoKo (a gorilla) who were both taught sign language. Some of
these apes have been found to create new words and sign spontaneously with other apes.
**While primate "language" seems very impressive, critics point out that apes learn Concept with great
difficulty (unlike humans) and have a very hard time learning (if they ever do) proper syntax
AP PSYCHOLOGY
MOTIVATION
STUDY GUIDE
Motivation: a need or desire that energizes and directs behavior.
Instinct: a complex behavior that is rigidly patterned throughout a species and is unlearned (e.g.,
imprinting in birds or the return of salmon to their birthplace to spawn). Reflexes in human infants are to
simple to be considered instincts.
Drive-Reduction Theory: the idea that a physiological NEED creates an aroused state of tension
(DRIVE) that motivates an organism to satisfy that need.
NEED (for food or water)→DRIVE (hunger or thirst)→DRIVE-REDUCING BEHAVIORS (eating or
drinking).
Drive-Reduction Theory is based on the Concept of Homeostasis.
Homeostasis: a tendency to maintain a balanced or constant internal state; the regulation of any
aspect of body chemistry, such as blood glucose, around a particular level.
Arousal Theory: rather that reducing a physiological need or tension state, some motivated behaviors
increase arousal. Curiosity-driven behaviors, for example, suggest that too little as well as too much
stimulation can motivate people to seek an optimum level of arousal.
Incentive Theory: Theory that even if a need or drive is not originally present, positive or negative
environmental stimuli may motivate behavior (e.g., after finishing a big meal, and feeling totally satisfied,
we may become hungry again if we see or smell a delicious dessert).
Hierarchy of Needs: Maslow's pyramid of human needs, beginning at the base with physiological needs
that must first be satisfied before higher-level needs become active.
MOTIVATION AT WORK
Flow: A completely involved, focused state of consciousness, with diminished awareness of self and
time, resulting from optimal engagement of one’s skills
Industrial/Organizational (I/O) Psychology: the application of psychological concepts and methods to
optimizing human behavior in the workplace.
Personnel Psychology: a subfield of I/O psychology that focuses on employee recruitment, selection,
placement, training, appraisal, and development.
Organizational Psychology: a subfield of I/O psychology that examines organizational influences on
worker satisfaction and productivity and facilitates organizational change.
Human Factors Psychology: a subfield of I/O psychology which explores how machines and
environments can be optimally designed to fit human abilities and expectations.
ACHIEVEMENT MOTIVATION
Achievement Motivation: a desire for significant accomplishment: for mastery of things, people, or
ideas; for attaining a high standard.
Intrinsic Motivation: a desire to perform a behavior for its own sake and to be effective.
Extrinsic Motivation: a desire to perform a behavior due to promised rewards or threats of punishment.
Task Leadership: goal-oriented leadership that sets standards, organizes work, and focuses attention on
goals.
Social Leadership: group-oriented leadership that builds teamwork, mediates conflict, and offers
support.
Theory X: assumes that workers are basically lazy, error-prone, and extrinsically motivated by money
and, thus, should be directed from above.
Theory Y: assumes that, given challenges and freedom, workers are motivated to achieve self-esteem and
to demonstrate their competence and creativity.
AP PSYCHOLOGY
EMOTION
STUDY GUIDE
NOTE: Some of the material on this study guide is NOT in the textbook but is still important to
know and understand
Emotion – Response that includes physiological arousal, expressive behavior and conscious thoughts
Theories of Emotion:
1. James-Lange Theory (William James and Carl Lange)
Stimulus = snake
A. Physiological reaction occurs first (behavior) such as heart rate, pulse, or breathing increases
B. Emotion follows – fear
This claims that there is a unique set of physiological symptoms for each emotion. Physiological behavior
CAUSES emotion. So, if we smile, we start to feel happy.
2. Cannon-Bard Theory (Walter Cannon and Phil Bard)
Stimulus = snake
A. Thalamus sends message to the cortex and internal organs SIMULTANEOUSLY
B. Experience emotion (fear) and physiological behavior (heart pounding) at the same time
Doesn’t believe the body’s responses are distinct enough to differentiate between love and anger and fear.
They all have similar physiology
3. Cognition Theory – Schacter Two-Factor Theory (Stanley Schacter and Jerome Singer)
Stimulus = snake
A. Physiological response occurs – heart pounding
B. Mind interprets the experience – Look there is a snake! OMG!
C. Emotion is labeled – I must be feeling fear!
The same physical response (heart pounding) could happen later in the day. But, the mind might interpret
that differently (Wow, a cute guy is looking at me). The emotion is then labeled (I’m in love!)
How we think about events affects the experience of the emotion. We have power over our emotional
state. The same physiological responses can give rise to any number of labels. This is especially true for
complex emotions such as love, depression, hatred, frustration
Criticism: Some physiological responses to a stimulus can trigger emotion before the brain has a chance
to interpret them  simple emotions such as fear, dislike, disgust
Arousal and Performance:
Optimal Arousal Theory – claims the level of arousal for optimal performance varies with the task
Yerkes-Dodson Law – usually perform most activities best when moderately aroused.
We perform difficult or newly learned tasks better at lower levels of arousal and we tend to perform easy
or well-learned tasks at a higher level of arousal
EXAMPLE: When learning to drive we need a low level of arousal or stress (no distractions like the radio
playing) but once you have been driving a long time you may need to radio on to keep you alert and
attentive
Lie Detection – Polygraph is the machine used to detect lies by measuring several physiological responses
(perspiration, heart rate, breathing) Assumes that these responses will RISE when the person lies due to
emotion. NOT VERY ACCURATE
Expressing Emotion:
A. Opponent-Process Theory – When we experience an emotion, an opposing emotion will counter the
first and less its intensity.
EX: Jump out of a plane, we feel high fear and low elation. Each time we do it, the fear lessens and the
elation increases
B. Facial Expressions – Ekman
1. Women are better than men at reading emotion in body language
2. Six emotions are expressed the same way in ALL cultures
HAPPY, SAD, SURPRISE, ANGER, DISGUST, FEAR
It is believed this is the result of evolution/not learning. The facial muscles serve an important
purpose. (brows drop when angry to protect eyes from a punch)
C. Facial Feedback Effect – Smiling makes you feel happy!
When people smile, the facial muscles regulate the flow of air and temperature that can create a
good feeling. When we imitate other’s facial expressions we also feel the way they feel.
Experiencing Emotion:
Fear:
1. Adaptive response preparing our bodies to flee danger
2. Acquired through classical conditioning or observational learning
3. May have a biological predisposition in how the amygdala responds
Anger:
1. Caused by annoyances, odors, temperatures, aches and pains
2. How to channel anger appropriately? Exercise, play music, talking
3. Expressing anger usually leads to more anger – non cathartic
Happiness
1. Increased wealth hardly affects long-term happiness
2. Adaptation-Level Principle – we adapt to levels of a stimulus and need something even better to make
us happy
Ex: If used to getting B’s we need to now get A’s to feel happy about report card
3. Relative-Deprivation Principle – sense that we are worse off than other with whom we compare
ourselves. We look to those who are more successful/happy/wealthy than ourselves and feel envy
rather than compare ourselves to those worse off and feel happy.
Ex. Child gets a new toy and is excited until he sees the neighbor who has a bigger toy
4. Predictors of happiness
High self-esteem, outgoing, friends, work, faith, sleep, exercise
AP PSYCHOLOGY
SENSATION STUDY GUIDE
Sensation: The process by which sensory receptors (in eye, ear, etc.) receive and are stimulated by
stimulus energies from the environment.
Perception: The process of organizing and interpreting sensory information, enabling us to recognize
meaningful objects and events.
Bottom-up-processing: Analysis that begins with the sense receptors and works up to the brain's
processing of the information.
Top-down-processing: Information processing guided by higher-level processes, such as our
expectations.
Absolute Threshold: The minimum stimulation needed to detect a particular stimulus 50% of the time.
Signal Detection Theory: Predicts how and when we detect faint stimuli (dependent on experience,
expectations, motivation & fatigue.
Subliminal Stimulation: Stimulation below one's threshold of conscious awareness. Research reveals a
subtle, fleeting effect on thinking, but no effect on behavior.
Difference Threshold: The minimum difference between two stimuli required for detection 50% of the
time. It is also called the just noticeable difference or JND. It is based on Weber's Law: The difference
threshold is in proportion to the strength of the original stimulus.
Sensory Adaptation: Our diminishing sensitivity to unchanging stimuli.
Selective Attention: The focusing of attention on specific stimuli, while ignoring other stimuli (e.g., the
cocktail party effect).
Transduction: The transforming of stimulus energies (i.e., light waves, sound waves) into neural
impulses.
VISION & LIGHT ENERGY
Wavelength: Distance from the peak of one light or sound wave to the next. Wavelength determines
HUE or color in vision and Pitch in audition.
Shorter wavelengths are bluish in color, while longer wavelengths are reddish.
Amplitude: The height of a light or sound wave. It determines brightness in vision and loudness in
hearing.
Pupil: Adjustable opening in the center of the eye through which light passes.
Iris: A ring of muscle tissue that forms the colored part of the eye. It controls the size of the pupil
Lens: The transparent structure behind the pupil that changes shape (called accommodation) to help
focus images on the retina.
Visual Acuity: The sharpness of vision.
Nearsightedness: Can see nearby objects more clearly because distant object focus in front of the
retina (eyeball may be too long).
Farsightedness: Can see distant objects more clearly because nearby objects focus behind the retina
(eyeball may be too short).
Rods & Cones: The receptor cells for vision. Receptor cells are specialized neurons designed, in this
case, to transduce light energy into neural impulses.
Rods: detect black, white, & grey. Found mainly in the periphery of the retina. More than one rod
connects to each bipolar cell. Thus, less light energy is necessary for them to cause the bipolar cells to
fire. Necessary for NIGHT VISION & PERIPHERAL VISION.
Cones: Found mainly in the center (fovea) of the retina. Necessary for COLOR VISION and VISUAL
ACUITY.
Light waves stimulate rods & cones which synapse to bipolar cells, which synapse to ganglion cells.
The axons of the ganglion cells come together to form the Optic nerves which transmit visual
information to the brain.
Blindspot: The area in the retina where the optic nerve leaves the back of eye. No rods or cones are
located there, so no vision is possible at that location.
Feature Detectors: Nerve cells in the brain that respond to specific features of a visual stimulus, such as
shape, angle, or movement.
Parallel Processing: The ability of the brain to process several aspect of a situation simultaneously.
COLOR VISION
Young-Helmholtz Trichromatic Theory: The theory that the retina contains three different types of
cones--one most sensitive to red, one to blue, and one to green--which when stimulated in combination
can produce any color. RED, GREEN, & BLUE are the PRIMARY COLORS OF LIGHT WAVES.
Opponent Process Theory: Theory that opposing retinal processes (red-green, yellow-blue, & blackwhite) enable color vision. For example some cells are stimulated by red while inhibited by green; others
are stimulated by yellow, while inhibited by blue. This helps explain afterimages.
Color constancy: Perceiving familiar objects as having consistent color, even if changing
illumination alters the wavelength reflected by the object.
AUDITION
Audition: The sense of hearing.
Frequency: The number of complete wavelengths in a given period of time. Frequency determines
pitch.
Amplitude: Height of each wavelength--determines loudness.
Sound Localization: Sound waves strike one ear sooner and with more intensity than the other
ear. With this information, the brain can determine the location of the sound.
Middle Ear: Chamber between the eardrum and the oval window which contains the ossicles (three tiny
bones--hammer, anvil, & stirrup) which concentrate the vibrations of the eardrum.
Inner Ear: Contains the cochlea, semicircular canals, and vestibular sacs.
Cochlea: a coiled, bony, fluid-filled tube through which sound waves trigger nerve impulses.
Basilar Membrane: Membrane along the center of the cochlea that contains hair cells (the receptor
cells for sound). Axons from the hair cells for the Auditory Nerves, which transmit neural impulses to
the brain.
PITCH PERCEPTION
Place Theory: Theory that the pitch we hear is associated with the place where the basilar membrane is
stimulated. Best for explaining high-pitched tones.
Frequency Theory: Theory that the rate of nerve impulses traveling up the auditory nerve matches the
frequency of the tone we are hearing. Best for explaining low-pitched tones.
Volley Principle: Helps explain in frequency theory how we can hear sounds with a frequency greater
than 1000 cycles per second. While some neurons are "recharging" during the refractory period, others
are firing.
Conduction Deafness: Caused by damage to the structures that conduct sound waves through the ear
(eardrum, ossicles).
Nerve Deafness: Caused by damage to the cochlea's hair cells or the auditory nerve.
TOUCH
Touch or tactile sense involves a mixture of at least 4 distinct skin senses--pressure, warmth, cold, and
pain. Only pressure has identifiable sense receptors.
COLD + PRESSURE = WETNESS
COLD + WARMTH = HOT
PAIN
Gate-Control-Theory: Theory that the spinal cord contains a neurological "gate" that blocks pain signals
or allows them to pass. The gate is opened by stimulation of small nerve fibers and closed by stimulation
of larger fiber or by information coming from the brain.
TASTE
Taste is the Gustatory Sense.
Taste is a CHEMICAL SENSE and consists of the four basic tastes of sweet, sour, bitter, & salty. There
may also be a 5th sense called "umami" or a meaty taste.
Each bump on the tongue contains over 200 taste buds. Each bud contains a pore that captures food
molecules. The molecules cause hair-like neurons within the pores to fire.
Taste Buds reproduce themselves every 2-3 weeks.
Sensory Interaction: The principle that one sense may be influenced by another, as when the smell of
food influences its taste.
SMELL
Smell is the Olfactory Sense.
Smell is also a CHEMICAL SENSE.
Very little is known about the olfactory sense. However, we are able to detect about 10,000 different
odors.
Smells are processed in the temporal lobes of the brain and in the LIMBIC SYSTEM, which may
explain why certain smells seem to have an emotional component and can trigger memories.
Molecules in the air reach millions of receptor cells in each nasal cavity. These cells send messages to the
olfactory bulb and the olfactory nerve which transmits the messages to the brain.
BODY POSITION & MOVEMENT
Kinesthesis: The system for sensing the position and movement of individual body parts. The receptor
cells for kinesthesis are found in our muscles, tendons, & joints.
Vestibular Sense: The system that monitors the head's (and thus the body's) position and movement. It is
our sense of equilibrium.
The semicircular canals and vestibular sacs in the inner ear contain receptors that tell us about our
head's position.
AP PSYCHOLOGY
PERCEPTION STUDY GUIDE
Perception: The process of organizing and interpreting sensory information, enabling us to recognize
meaningful objects and events.
Perceptual Organization
Figure-ground Relationship: Our ability to perceive any object (the figure) as distinct from its
surroundings (the ground).
Visual Capture: The tendency for vision to dominate the other senses when conflicting information is
being received.
Gestalt Organizational Principles: Gestalt psychologists emphasize our tendency to integrate individual
pieces of information into a meaningful whole. To bring order and form to basic visual sensations, our
brains follow certain rules for grouping stimuli together.
1. Proximity: We group nearby objects and belonging together.
2. Similarity: Figures similar to each other (i.e., as in shape or color) are groups together.
3. Continuity: We perceive smooth, continuous patterns rather than discontinuous ones.
4. Connectedness: When uniform and linked, we perceive spots, lines, or areas as single units.
5. Closure: We fill in gaps to create complete, whole objects.
Depth Perception
Visual Cliff: A laboratory device for testing depth perception in infants. Even when coaxed, infants are
reluctant to venture onto the glass over the cliff.
Binocular Cues: Depth cues that depend on the use of both of our eyes.
1. Retinal Disparity: By comparing the two slightly different images received on each retina, the
brain computes the distance of what we are looking at. The greater the disparity (difference) between
the two images, the closer the object.
2. Convergence: The extent to which the eyes converge inward when looking at an object. The
greater the convergence, the closer the object.
Monocular Cues: Distance cues that require the use of one eye only.
1. Relative Size: If we assume two objects are about the same size, the one that casts the smaller
retinal image is perceived as being farther away.
2. Interposition (Overlap): If one object partially blocks another, the one that is partially blocked is
perceived to be farther away.
3. Relative Clarity: Because light from distant objects must pass through more atmosphere, we
perceive hazy object as being farther away than clear, distinct objects.
4. Texture Gradient: A gradual change from a coarse, distinct texture to a fine, indistinct texture
signals increasing distance.
5. Relative Height: We perceive objects higher in our visual field as being further away.
6. Linear Perspective: Parallel lines (such as railroad tracks) appear further away as they converge in
the distance.
7. Light & Shadow (relative brightness): Nearby objects reflect more light. Thus, given two
identical objects, the dimmer one seems further away.
8. Relative Motion (motion parallax): If while riding in a train you fix your gaze on some object (the
fixation point), objects closer than the fixation point appear to be moving backward. The nearer an object
is the faster it seems to move. Objects behind the fixation point appear to be moving with you: The
farther away the object is from the fixation point, the more slowly it appears to move.
Motion Perception
One way we perceive motion is by knowing that if an object keeps getting bigger, it is probably moving
towards us. If an object is shrinking, it is moving away from us.
Phi Phenomenon: When two or more adjacent stationary lights blink on and off in quick succession, we
perceive a single light moving. (Lighted signs use this phenomenon).
Stroboscopic Movement: The brain will interpret a rapid series of slightly varying images as continuous
movement. By flashing 24 still pictures each second, a motion picture creates perceived movement.
Perceptual Constancies
Perceiving objects as unchanging (having constant lightness, color, shape, and size) even when our retinal
images of them change. For example:
Shape Constancy: We perceive the form of familiar objects as constant even when our retinal images of
them change.
Size Constancy: We perceive familiar objects to maintain a constant size even when their distance from
us changes.
Lightness Constancy: We perceive an object as having a constant lightness even when its illumination
varies.
Sensory Deprivation
People blind from birth, who later have their vision restored, can distinguish figure-ground relationships,
can sense colors, but have great difficulty recognizing objects that they were familiar with by touch.
Similarly, Blakemore & Cooper found that kittens whose vision was restricted to only seeing vertical
lines during a critical period of development, later could not see horizontal lines.
Perceptual Adaptation: In vision, the ability to adjust to an artificially displaced or even inverted visual
field.
Perceptual Set: A mental predisposition to perceive one thing and not another (e.g., seeing the Lock
Ness Monster instead of a piece of driftwood because of your beliefs).
Context Effects: Any given stimulus may trigger radically different perceptions depending on the
surrounding environment or circumstances. Culture may have a great impact on context and perception.
Human Factors Psychology: A branch of psychology that explores how people and machines interact
and how machines and physical environments can be adapted to human behaviors.
Extrasensory Perception (ESP)
The controversial claim that perception can occur apart from sensory input.
Telepathy: Mind to mind communication
Clairvoyance: The sensing of remote events that are presently occuring.
Precognition: The sensing of future events.
Telekinesis (psychokinesis): Ability to affect objects with the power of the mind.
Parapsychologists: Psychologists who study paranormal occurrences, including claims of ESP.
AP PSYCHOLOGY
LEARNING
REVIEW GUIDE
Learning: a relatively permanent change in an organism's behavior due to experience.
Behaviorism: the view that psychology (1) should be an objective science that (2) studies behavior
without reference to mental processes. Most research psychologist today agree with (1) but not with (2).
Associative Learning: learning the two events (2 stimuli in the case of classical conditioning or a
response and its consequence in operant conditioning) occur together.
CLASSICAL CONDITIONING
Classical Conditioning: a type of learning in which an organism comes to associate two stimuli. A
neutral stimulus that signals and unconditioned stimulus (UCS) begins to produce a response that
anticipates and prepares for the unconditioned stimulus. Also called Pavlovian Conditioning.
Unconditioned Stimulus (USC): in classical conditioning, a stimulus that unconditionally--naturally and
automatically--triggers an unconditioned response (UCR).
Unconditioned Response (UCR): in classical conditioning, the unlearned, naturally occurring response
to the unconditioned stimulus (UCS), such as salivation when presented with food.
Conditioned Stimulus (CS): in classical conditioning, an originally irrelevant or Neutral Stimulus (NS)
that, after association with an unconditioned stimulus (UCS), comes to elicit a conditioned response (CR).
Conditioned Response (CR): in classical conditioning, the learned response to a previously neutral
conditioned stimulus (CS).
Before Conditioning
UCS (food)→UCR (salivation) & NS (bell)→no salivation
During Conditioning
NS (bell) + UCS (food)→UCR (salivation)
After Conditioning
CS (bell)→CR (salivation)
**Remember: During classical conditioning, the neutral stimulus (NS) must be presented immediately
BEFORE the UCS. After conditioning, the NS will become the conditioned stimulus (CS). Also, keep in
mind that the unconditioned response (UCR) and the conditioned response (CR) are often very similar, if
not identical to one another.
Acquisition: the initial stage in classical conditioning. The phase associating a neutral stimulus with an
unconditioned stimulus so that the neutral stimulus becomes a conditioned stimulus and elicits a
conditioned response.
Extinction: the diminishing of a conditioned response. It occurs in classical conditioning when the UCS
stops being paired with the CS (e.g., the bell is presented without being followed by the food).
Spontaneous Recovery: the reappearance, after a rest period, of an extinguished conditioned response.
Generalization: the tendency, once a response has been conditioned, for stimuli similar to the
conditioned stimulus to elicit similar responses.
Discrimination: the learned ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus (e.g., bell) and other
stimuli that do not signal an unconditioned stimulus (e.g., telephone ringing).
Biological Predispositions: the understanding that an animal’s capacity for conditioning is constrained
by its biology (e.g., it is much easier to condition a rat to avoid certain tastes than certain sounds because
rats use taste naturally to determine if food is "good").
Little Albert: young child who was conditioned to fear rats after a rat was paired with terribly loud noise.
John B. Watson carried out this study and is considered to be the "father of behaviorism".
OPERANT CONDITIONING
Associative Learning: learning that two events (a response and its consequence in operant condition or 2
stimuli in classical conditioning) occur together.
Operant Conditioning: a type of learning in which behavior is strengthened if followed by a reinforcer
(positive or negative) and weakened if followed by a punisher.
Respondent Behavior: behavior that occurs as an automatic response to some stimulus; Skinner's term
for behavior learned through classical conditioning.
Operant Behavior: Skinner's term for behavior that operates on (affects) the environment, producing
consequences.
Law of Effect: Thorndike's principle that behaviors followed by favorable consequences become more
likely, and that behaviors followed by unfavorable consequences become less likely.
Operant Chamber (Skinner Box): a chamber containing a "bar" that an animal can manipulate to
receive a food or water reinforcer, with associated devices to record the animal's rate of bar pressing.
Shaping: an operant conditioning procedure in which reinforcers guide behavior toward closer and closer
approximations of the desired behavior.
Reinforcer: in operant conditioning, any event (consequence) that strengthens the behavior it follows.
Positive Reinforcer: a typically pleasurable stimulus that follows a response (e.g., getting a hug). It
strengthens and increases the response.
Negative Reinforcer: an aversive stimulus that is removed following a response (e.g., the buzzer
stopping once you fasten your seatbelt). It strengthens and increases the response. It is NOT the same
thing as punishment.
Primary Reinforcer: an innately reinforcing stimulus, such as one that satisfies a biological need (e.g.,
food or water).
Secondary (or Conditioned) Reinforcer: a stimulus that gains it reinforcing power through its
association with a primary reinforcer (e.g., money).
**Remember: Immediate reinforcers (and punishers) are much more effective than delayed reinforcers
(and punishers).
Schedules of Reinforcement
Continuous Reinforcement: reinforcing the desired response every time it occurs.
Partial (intermittent) Reinforcement: reinforcing a response only part of the time. This results in
slower acquisition of a response but with much greater to resistance to extinction than a continuous
schedule of reinforcement.
Fixed-ratio: reinforcement of a response only after a specific number of responses have occurred.
Variable-ratio: reinforcement of a response after an unpredictable number of responses have
occurred.
Fixed-Interval: reinforcement of a response after a specific amount of time has elapsed.
Variable-Interval: reinforcement of a response after an unpredictable amount of time has elapsed.
PUNISHMENT:
Punishment: an event that decreases the behavior it follows.
Positive Punishment: following a response with an aversive stimulus, thus weakening the response
(e.g., spanking a child).
Negative Punishment: following a response with the removal of a pleasant stimulus, thus weakening
the response (e.g., taking away TV privileges).
Problems with Punishment: (1) it is only temporary; (2) it doesn't teach the correct behavior; (3) it can
create aggressive behavior in the organism being conditioned and: (4) the organism may become
classically conditioned to fear the punisher (through the association of pain (UCS) with the punisher
(CS)).
A B C's of Behviorism
Antecedent: Mom says, "Bobby, clean your room".
Behavior: Bobby cleans his room.
Consequence: Mom gives Bobby a hug.
Cognition & Operant Conditioning
Cognitive Map: a mental representation of the layout of one's environment.
Latent Learning: learning that occurs, but is not apparent, until there is an incentive to demonstrate it
Overjustification Effect: the effect of promising a reward for doing what one already likes to do. The
person may now see the reward, rather than intrinsic interest, as the motivation performing the task....and
thus, lose interest.
Biological Predispositions
As with classical conditioning, an animal's natural predispositions constrain its capacity for operant
conditioning. For example: Pigeons easily learn to flap their wing to avoid a shock or to peck at a bar to
obtain food because they naturally flap their wings to flee from danger and peck to obtain
food. However, they have a hard time learning to flap their wings to obtain food or peck at a bar to avoid
a shock.
Contrasting Operant & Classical Conditioning
Please review the handout. It is extremely important that you clearly understand the similarities and
differences in these two conditioning techniques.
OBSERVATIONAL LEARNING
Observational Learning: learning by observing the behavior of others (e.g., Bandura's experiments with
the children and the Bo-Bo Dolls)
Modeling: the process of observing and imitating a specific behavior. (While children clearly learn to
model antisocial behavior they see in the media, they can also learn to model prosocial behavior).
Prosocial Behavior: positive, constructive, helpful behavior. The opposite of antisocial behavior.
AP PSYCHOLOGY
THINKING & INTELLIGENCE
STUDY GUIDE
COGNITION
Cognition: (Thinking) the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and
communicating.
Concept: a mental grouping of similar objects, events, ideas, or people.
Prototype: a mental image or BEST example of a category (e.g., a prototypical "bird" may be a robin).
Artificial Intelligence (AI): the science of designing and programming computer systems to do
intelligent things and to simulate human thought processes, such as intuitive reasoning, learning, and
understanding language.
Solving Problems
Algorithm: a methodical, logical rule or procedure that guarantees solving a particular problem.
Heuristic: a simple thinking strategy that often allows us to make judgments and solve problems
efficiently; usually speedier but also more error-prone than algorithms.
Insight: a sudden and often novel realization of the solution to a problem; it contrasts with strategy-based
solutions.
Obstacles to Problem Solving
Confirmation Bias: a tendency to search for information that confirms one's preconceptions.
Fixation: the inability to see a problem from a new perspective.
Mental Set: a tendency to approach a problem in a particular way, especially a way that has been
successful in the past but may or may not be helpful in solving a new problem.
Functional Fixedness: the tendency to think of objects only in terms of their usual functions.
Making Decisions and Judgments
Representativeness Heuristic: judging the likelihood of things in terms of how well they seem to
represent, or match, particular prototypes; may lead one to ignore relevant information.
Availability Heuristic: estimating the likelihood of events based on their availability in memory; if
instances come readily to mind (perhaps because of their vividness), we presume such events are
common.
Overconfidence: the tendency to be more confident in our judgments that correct---to overestimate the
accuracy of one's beliefs and judgments.
Framing: the way in which an issue is posed (or worded); this can significantly affect decisions and
judgments.
Belief Bias: the tendency for one's preexisting beliefs to distort logical reasoning, sometimes by making
invalid conclusions seem valid, or valid conclusions seem invalid.
Belief Perseverance: clinging to one's initial conceptions after the basis on which they were formed has
been discredited.
INTELLIGENCE
Intelligence: mental quality consisting of the ability to learn from experience, solve problems, and use
knowledge to adapt to new situations.
Intelligence Test: a method for assessing an individual's mental aptitudes and comparing them with those
of others, using numerical scores.
Factor Analysis: a statistical procedure that identifies clusters of related items (called factors) on a test;
used to identify different dimensions of performance that underlie one's total score.
Reification: When we view an abstract concept (like intelligence) as if it were a concrete thing, we have
made the error of reification.
Theories of Intelligence
Francis Galton (late 1800's): He believed that some people were more superior to others with respect to
intelligence. He felt those people should be encouraged to mate and that less superior people should not
be allowed to produce offspring (eugenics movement). He felt you could determine one's intelligence by
measuring his/her head size, body proportions, and reaction time.
Charles Spearman (1930's): Noted that people "smart" in one area were often skilled in other
areas. Thus, he believed in an underlying general intelligence or g-factor.
g-factor: a general intelligence factor that Spearman and others believed underlies specific mental
abilities and is therefore measured by every task on an intelligence test.
L.L. Thurstaone (1930's): Disagreed with Spearman. He identified "7 Primary Mental Abilities" and
believed they were all independent from each other. They included: perceptual speed, numerical ability,
memory, spatial ability, inductive reasoning, word fluency, & verbal comprehension. The existence of
Savant Syndrome supports his viewpoint.
Savant Syndrome: a condition in which a person otherwise limited in mental ability has an
exceptional specific skill, such as in computation or music.
Howard Gardner (1980--): agreed with Thurstone in that intellectual skills were independent of one
another. He identified 8 independent multiple intelligences: logical/mathematical, spatial, linguistic,
body-kinesthetic, musical, intrapersonal, interpersonal, & naturalist.
Robert Sternberg (1980--): believed there are 3 general types of IQ. He called this the Triarchic
Theory of Intelligence.
Academic (or analytic): intelligence which is assessed by intelligence tests, which present welldefined problems with a single correct answer (i.e., school smarts).
Creative: intelligence demonstrated by reacting adaptively to new situations and generating novel
ideas.
Practical: intelligence required for everyday tasks, which are frequently ill-defined with multiple
solutions (i.e., street or business smarts).
Other Types of Intelligence
Emotional Intelligence: the ability to perceive, express, understand, and regulate emotions.
Creativity: the ability to produce novel and valuable ideas.
Brain Functions and Intelligence
While Galton was incorrect and you cannot determine IQ from head size, there is a moderate correlation
(+.44) between brain volume and IQ (i.e., more cortical tissue and 17% more synapses in educated versus
less educated people). Also, we find moderate correlations between IQ and (1) processing speed; (2)
perceptual speed and; (3) neurological speed.
ASSESSING INTELLIGENCE
Aptitude Test: a test designed to predict a person's future performance. Aptitude refers to the capacity to
learn (IQ tests are considered to be aptitude tests).
Achievement Test: a test designed to assess what a person has already learned (e.g., AP exams, driver's
license test).
**While the SAT is designed to predict future performance (and is thus an aptitude test), it is clearly also
an achievement test.
Alfred Binet: Along with Theodore Simon developed the first intelligence test in France in 1904. It was
designed to measure a child's mental age in order to predict future school performance. The test was
called the Simon-Binet Intelligence Test. It was later revised at Stanford University by Lewis Terman
and is now known today as the Stanford-Binet.
Intelligence Quotient (IQ): defined originally (Stern) as the ratio of mental age (MA) to chronological
age (CA) multiplied by 100 (thus, IQ = MA/CA * 100). On contemporary intelligence tests, the average
performance for a given age is assigned a score of 100.
Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS) & Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children
(WISC): These are the 2 most frequently used IQ tests in the US. They provide a verbal IQ along with a
non-verbal or performance IQ. They also provide an overall or full-scale IQ score. The Wechsler tests
have a mean of 100 and a standard deviation of 15.
Principles of Test Construction
Standardization: defining meaningful scores by comparison with the performance of a pretested
"standardization group".
Normal Curve: the symmetrical bell-shaped curve that describes the distribution of many physical
and psychological traits (including intelligence). Most scores fall near the average, and fewer and fewer
scores lie near the extremes.
Reliability: the extent to which a test yields consistent results, as assessed by the consistency of scores on
two halves of the test (split-half reliability) or on retesting at a later date (test-retest reliability).
Validity: the extent to which a test measures or predicts what it is supposed to.
a) Face Validity: the extent to which questions on a test appear to measure the construct of interest.
b) Content Validity: extent to which a test actually measures the construct of interest.
c) Predictive Validity: the success with which a test predicts the behavior it is designed to
predict. This is assessed by computing the correlation between test scores and the criterion behavior
(also called criterion-related validity).
Criterion: the behavior (such as college grades) that a test (such as the SAT) is designed to predict.
Extremes of Intelligence
Mental Retardation: a condition of limited mental ability, indicated by an IQ score below 70 and
difficulty in adapting to the demands of life; varies from mild to profound.
Down Syndrome: a condition of retardation and associated physical disorders caused by an extra
GENETICS & ENVIRONMENT
Heritability: the proportion of variation among individuals on a particular trait that can attributed to the
differences in their genes.
Twin & adoption studies show that genetics do play a role in intelligence (e.g., IQ's of identical twins
correlate at about .85, while fraternal twins at about .60).
However, the same studies show how important environment is in that identical twins reared together
correlate at .85, while those raised in different homes correlate at .71.Most psychologist agree that
differences in group IQ scores based on ethnic background or gender are due to environmental differences
not genetics.
AP PSYCHOLOGY
PERSONALITY
REVIEW GUIDE
I. Psychoanalytic Perspective
Psychoanalysis (FREUD) definition: treating and understanding disorders by exploring unconscious
conflicts and the unconscious expression of/or repression of unconscious impulses. thoughts, feeling and
desires.
Personality Structure
ID:
Uses primary process thinking (dreaming, fantasizing, etc.—as a way to gratify the id immediately) The
id strives to satisfy basic sexual and aggressive drives. The id operates on the “pleasure principle”.
EGO:
Uses secondary process thinking (a method to “get what you need” in the real world.) The ego tries to
“make peace” between the id, superego, and reality. The ego operates on the “ reality principle”.
SUPER-EGO
The conscience. The super-ego strives for perfection and judges actions. Weak superego: person is selfish
and remorseless.
Extremely strong superego: person is guilt- ridden.
Psychosexual Stages of Development
Oral (0-18 mos.): Pleasure Zone: mouth — biting. chewing, sucking.
Anal (18-36 mos.): Pleasure Zone: anus — bowel & bladder elimination; coping with demands for
control (toilet training).
Phallic (3-6 yrs.): Pleasure Zone: genitals — coping with incestuous sexual feelings (Oedipal complex &
Electra complex).
Latency (6-puberty): dormant sexual feelings.
Genital (puberty on): Mature sexual interests.
Fixation can occur at any of the first three stages if during that stage of development the child is either
over-gratified or under-gratified. As a result. some sexual energy (libido ) becomes fixated at that stage.
Defense Mechanisms
The Ego’s method of reducing anxiety by distorting reality:
Repression
Regression
Projection
Reaction Formation
Displacement
Rationalization
Sublimation
Denial
The Neo-Freudians
Carl Jung
personal unconscious
collective unconscious
archetypes: anima, animus, persona,
shadow, hero, savior etc.
Introverts vs. Extroverts
Jung focused less on the sexual and more on the rational & spiritual qualities of people than did Freud.
Alfred Adler:
Inferiority complex
Fictional finalism
Adler focused on directing energy overcoming feelings of inferiority striving toward perfection.
Karen Horney:
She strongly disagreed with Freud’s view of women as weak & over-emotional. She focused on how
cultural forces can impact personality development.
Erik Erikson:
8 stages of Psychosocial Development:
Erikson stressed the importance of the quality of parent-child relationships in personality development.
He did, however agree with most of what Freud said about sexual instincts and the libido.
II. Humanistic Perspective
These theories stress the fundamental goodness of people and their striving toward higher levels of
functioning.
Carl Rogers:
actualizing tendency
fully-functioning person
unconditional positive regard vs.
conditional positive regard
person-centered therapy
Abraham Maslow:
self-actualization
hierarchy of motives
III. Behavioral Perspective:
B.F. Skinner:
The environment shapes behavior through reinforcement contingencies.
Antecedents→Behaviors→Consequences The theory denies any impact from cognition. unconscious
desires or personal striving.
IV. Social-Cognitive Perspectives:
Based on Skinner’s learning theory but also incorporates cognition, and social influences.
Bandura: (Social Learning Theory):
Reciprocal Determinism:
↔behavior↔personal/cognitive factors↔environment↔
Observation Learning (modeling)
Rotter:
Locus of Control: Internal vs. External
Seligman:
Learned Helplessness: uncontrollable bad events→ perceived lack of control→ generalized helpless
behavior (depression)
V. The Trait Perspective
Theorists are interested in DESCRIBING personality not EXPLAINING it.
Sheldon: (Body types): endomorphs,
mesomorphs & ectomorphs.
Cattell: By using factor analysis, determined
their were 16 basic personality traits.
(developed the 16PF)
Eysenk: 2 personality dimensions: stable vs
unstable & introverted vs extroverted
BIG 5 Personality Factors: stability,
extraversion, openness, aggreeableness,
& conscientiousness.
**REMEMBER: Most psychologists today are Eclectic. They don’t adhere to
just one personality theory. Instead, they draw from several theories.
Personality Assessment
The Personal Interview
Observation
Objective Tests: used to assess personality
traits.
16PF (Cattell)-assesses "normal” traits
MMPI : intended for psychiatric
diagnoses or “abnormal” traits.
Projective Tests: used to assess
unconscious motives & conflicts.
Rorschach : consists of ambiguous inkblots. The way a person interprets them reveals aspects of the
personality
TAT: (Thematic Apperception Test): consists of ambiguous pictures about which a person tells a story.
The stories provide clues as to internal motives, needs, and drives.
AP PSYCHOLOGY
MEMORY
REVIEW GUIDE
Memory: the persistence of learning over time through the storage and retrieval of information.
Flashbulb Memory: a clear memory of an emotionally significant moment or event.
Encoding: the processing of information into the memory system (i.e., getting information into memory).
Storage: the retention of the encoded information over time.
Retrieval: the process of getting information out of memory storage.
Information Processing
External events are first recorded in fleeting sensory memory. If we pay attention to this information, it
will be encoded into short-term memory. With further encoding and rehearsal, the information will be
recorded in long-term memory.
Sensory Memory: the immediate, initial recording of sensory information in the memory system (iconic
= visual sensory memory; echoic = auditory sensory memory).
Short-term Memory: activated memory that holds a few items (7 + or - 2) briefly (about 30 seconds),
such
as the 7 digits of a telephone number while dialing, before the information is stored or forgotten.
Long-term Memory: the relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of the memory system.
ENCODING: GETTING INFO IN
Automatic Processing: effortless, unconscious encoding of incidental information, such as space, time,
and frequency, and of well-learned information, such as word meanings.
Effortful Processing: encoding that requires attention and conscious effort.
Rehearsal: the conscious repetition of information, either to maintain it in consciousness or to encode it
for storage.
Ebbinghaus' Retention Curve: Ebbinghaus found that the more times he practiced a list of nonsense
syllables on day 1, the fewer repetitions needed to relearn them on day 2. In other words, the more time
we spend learning new information, the better we retain it.
Spacing Effect: the tendency for distributed study or practice to yield better long-term retention than is
achieved through massed study or practice (i.e., cramming doesn't work well).
Serial Position Effect: our tendency to recall best the first and last items in a list. More specifically:
Recency Effect: When asked to recall items immediately, we remember items at the end of the list
best.
Primacy Effect: When asked to recall items at a later time, we remember items at the beginning of
the list best.
How We Encode Information
Visual Encoding: the encoding of picture images.
Acoustic Encoding: the encoding of sounds, especially the sound of words.
Semantic Encoding: the encoding of meaning, including the meaning of words.
*NOTE: Processing a word deeply--by its meaning (semantic encoding)--produces better recognition of
it at a later time than does shallow processing of its appearance (visual encoding) or its sound (acoustic
encoding).
Imagery: mental pictures; a powerful aid to effortful processing, especially when combined with
semantic encoding.
Mnemonics: memory aids, especially those techniques that use vivid imagery and organizational devices.
Chunking: organizing items into familiar, manageable units; often occurs automatically.
STORAGE: RETAINING INFO
Sensory Memory
Iconic Memory: a momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli; a photographic or picture-image
memory lasting no more than a few tenths of a second (this phenomenon was studied by Sperling).
Echoic Memory: a momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli; if attention is elsewhere, sounds
and words can still be recalled with 3 or 4 seconds.
Short-term Memory: temporary memory storage. Most people can hold about 7, plus or minus 2, bit of
information in STM. Depending on the type of info, it won't remain in STM much longer than about 1030 seconds.
Long-term Memory: relatively permanent and limitless memory storehouse. Both serotonin and stress
hormones have been found to be important in the formation of memories.
Long-term Potentiation (LTP): an increase in a synapse's firing potential after brief, rapid
stimulation. Believed to be a neural basis for learning and memory.
1. Implicit Memory (non-declarative): recall of information that does not require conscious effort.
a) Procedural Memory: Memory for skills (cognitive and motor), such as riding a bicycle or saying
the alphabet. These skills become almost automatic with time.
b) Dispositional Memory: all of the behaviors learned through classical and operant conditioning.
**Implicit memories are processed by the cerebellum.
2. Explicit Memory (declarative): memory of facts and experiences that one can consciously know and
"declare".
a) Episodic Memory: Memory of personal experiences; it is like your memory "diary".
b) Semantic Memory: Memory of facts and general knowledge; it is like your memory
"encyclopedia".
**Explicit memories are processed by the hippocampus.
Prospective Memory – Remembering to perform actions in the future
Retrospective Memory – Remembering events from the past or previously learned information
RETRIEVAL: GETTING INFO OUT
Recall: a measure of memory in which the person must retrieve information learned earlier (e.g., fill-inthe-blank test)
Recognition: a measure of memory in which the person need only identify items previously learned (e.g.,
multiple-choice test.
Relearning: a memory measure that assesses the amount of time saved when learning material for a
second time.
Priming: the activation, often unconsciously, of particular associations in memory.
Context Effects: memory is better for information that is retrieved in the same (or similar) context in
which it was learned (e.g., words memorized underwater are best recalled underwater).
Mood-congruent Memory: the tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with one's current good
or bad mood
FORGETTING:
1. We may not remember information simply because we never encoded it.
2. We also lose information simply due to the passage of time, this is called decay.
3. We also lose information due to interference.
a) Proactive Interference: the disruptive effect of prior learning on the recall of new information.
b) Retroactive Interference: the disruptive effect of new learning on the recall of old information.
4. Through motivated forgetting, we may alter or rearrange our memories to make ourselves feel better
(e.g., forgetting that you ate 10 cookies in a sitting while on a diet).
Repression: A form of motivated forgetting. In psychoanalytic theory, the basic defense mechanism
that banishes from consciousness anxiety-arousing thoughts, feelings, and memories.
Misinformation Effect: incorporating misleading information into one's memory of an event (studied
extensively by Elizabeth Loftus).
Source Amnesia: attributing something we have heard about, read about, or imagined to the wrong
source (often believing we personally experienced it).
**Source amnesia, along with the misinformation effect, is at the heart of many false memories.
Remember: overall, eyewitness memories are quite fallible...especially children's recollections of
events. Additionally, when "repressed" memories of abuse are "recovered" through the use of hypnosis,
there is a high probability that the memories are false (false-memory syndrome)