• Cell
membrane
• Nucleus
• Cytoplasm
• Mitochond
ria for
Animal cell
 Bacteria
cell
respiratio
n
• Ribosomes

Allprotein
these 3
for
have Cell
synthesis
Walls
Oxygen needed for respiration passes
through cell membranes by diffusion.
Remember it is a net movement
from high to low concentrations.
 Plant & Algal cells
(cellulose wall)
 Yeast
cell
Tissues
form
organs: e.g.
stomach,
which work
together in
organ
systems,
e.g.
Cells
work
digestive
together
system in
tissues: e.g.
• glandular,
• muscular,
• epithelial
tissues.
Digestive
system
Specialised cells: e.g.
Photosynthesis
Stored as starch (insoluble)
Carbon dioxide + Water
Glucose + Oxygen
Light and chlorophyll are also
needed
Three Limiting factors
-light intensity
-temperature
-CO2
At first as CO2
increases so does photosynthesis
sperm, nerve cell, glandular
cell, epithelial cell
Glucose used by plant for
respiration and also to make
• fat or oil for storage
• cellulose, which
strengthens the cell wall
• proteins (also need
nitrates).
• stomach,
• small
intestine,
• pancreas,
• salivary
glands,
• liver (bile),
• large
intestine
Distribu
(faeces)
tion of
animals
and plants
is
affected
by
physical
factors
e.g.
• temp,
• nutrient
s,
• light,
• water,
• oxygen
Plant
• carbon
tissues:
dioxide
•
but only up to a certain point
•
Here light or temperature is the
limiting factor.
•
•
epiderm
al,
mesoph
yll,
xylem,
phloem
Use
quadrats:
random
sampling or
belt
transect.
Sample size
depends on
• Validity (
big
enough)
• Reproduci
bility (not
too big)
Results: look
at mean,
median, mode
e.g. 1,2,3,6,6,12
Mean = 30/6 = 5
Mode = 6
Median = 4.5
1)
2)
3)
Enzymes –biological catalysts that
speed up reactions e.g.
respiration in the
mitochondria
Proteins are long
chains of amino acids
folded to give a
specific shape. e.g.
muscle, hormones,
antibodies, catalysts
(enzymes).
Enzymes have an optimum
Enzymes are made from protein
temperature and pH. Changes in
pH/temp can denature the
enzyme so its shape changes and
the substrate can’t bind to the
active site
DNA: deoxyribose nucleic acid. Forms a code for
making proteins from amino acids. DNA
fingerprinting possible as a person’s DNA is
unique ( except for id twins ).
Stem cells: from embryos
Embryo
Mendel:
or bone marrow. Can
screenin
discover
differentiate to any kind
g: to find
ed
of cell. Useful e.g paralysis
alleles
‘inherite
treated by making new
for
d
nerve cells
genetic
factors”
Uses of Enzymes
Inheritance- Parents who are both
carriers of the Cystic fibrosis allele (c).
Parents
Cc
x
Cc
Gametes
C or c
x
C or c
C
-Biological washing powders (P,L)
-In baby foods (proteases)
Enzymes and digestion
Large molecules are broken down so they
can be absorbed.
Amylase ( a carbohydrase) breaks down
starch into sugars in the mouth and small
intestine.
Starch
- Carbohydrases to turn starch
into sugar syrup
-In slimming foods- fructose is
made using isomerases.
Fructose is sweeter than glucose
so less is needed.
Possible Outcomes
C
75% healthy
c
25% sufferers
glucose
Cystic Fibrosis
Proteases breakdown proteins into amino
acids in the stomach and small intestine.
Lipases breakdown fats into fatty acids and
glycerol in the small intestine.
Caused by recessive allele (so
two copies of allele are needed).
A thick sticky mucus is produced
affecting air passages and
digestive systems
Enzymes are made in the
Polydactyly- extra fingers or toes.
salivary glands (A), stomach
Caused by dominant allele (so
(P), pancreas (A,P,L), small
only one allele is needed).
intestine (A,P,L).
• Stomach also makes acid
(HCl).
• Liver makes bile to
46 chromosomes in human body cell
(23 pairs of which one pair is XX or
XY). But only 23 chromosomes in
gametes/sex cells
Mitosis-(TWO) used
for normal
cell growth
1)
Parent cell
chromosomes
make
identical
copies of
themselves
2)They line up along
the centre
3) They move apart
4)Two daughter
cells form
each with 46
identical
chromosomes
to the parent
cell
c
CC
Cc
Cc
cc
diseases
–
ethics…
by
studying
monohyb
• Homozygous
rid (
bb) or (BB),
crosses
• Heterozygous
in peas.
(Bb),
• phenotype, (
what is
seen/expressed
e.g. brown eyes)
• Genotype (
which alleles they
Meiosis –(makes
have e.g. BB)
eggs in
ovaries…..)used
to
make the sex
cells (gametes)
-the
chromosomes are
copied
-cell divides
twice to give 4
non-identical
gamete cells
(each with 23
chromosomes)
Fossils may be formed in various ways:
Aerobic respiration
happens
continuously in
animals and plants
Aerobic
The energy may be used:
■ to build larger
molecules from smaller
ones
Aerobic
respiratio
n happens
in the
mitochondr
ia.
■ in animals, to enable
muscles to contract
■ in mammals and birds,
to maintain a steady
body temperature in
colder surroundings
in plants:
energy is used to
build up sugars,
nitrates and
other nutrients
into amino acids
which are then
built up into
proteins.
Muscles store
glucose as
glycogen, which
can then
be converted
back to glucose
for use during
exercise.
■ from the hard parts of animals that do not decay
easily
■ from parts that have not decayed because the
conditions needed for decay are absent
■ when parts of the organism are replaced by other
materials as they decay
■Extinction
as preserved
traces
of organisms,
eg footprints,
may
be caused
by:
burrows
andto
rootlet
traces.
■ changes
the environment
Speciation
over geological time
■ new predators
■ new diseases
■ new, more successful,
competitors
■ a single catastrophic event,
eg massive volcanic eruptions
or collisions with asteroids
■ through the cyclical nature
of speciation.
glucose + oxygen ➞ carbon dioxide
+ water
During exercise:
(+ energy)
Anaero
bic
the heart rate
increases
■ the rate and
depth of
breathing
increases.
These
changes
increase the
blood flow to the
muscles and so
• increase the
supply of sugar
and oxygen
• increase the
rate of removal
of carbon
As the
breakdown of
glucose is
incomplete,
much less energy
is released than
during aerobic
respiration.
New species form
because of
■ geographical
isolation
■ genetic
variation
■ natural
If selection
muscles are
subjected to long
■ speciation
periods of vigorous
activity they become
fatigued, i.e. they
stop
contracting
One
cause
of muscle
fatigue
is the build-up
efficiently.
of lactic acid in the
muscles.
Blood flowing through
the muscles removes
exercise
if
the ,lactic
acid.
During
insufficient oxygen is reaching
the muscles they use anaerobic
respiration to obtain energy.
Anaerobic
Anaerobic
respiration results
respiration is
the
incomplete
in an oxygen debt
breakdown of
that has to be
glucose and
repaid in order to
produces
oxidise lactic acid
lactic acid.
to carbon dioxide
lactic
+ oxygen  carbon
andacid
water.
dioxide + water
1. name 4 cells with a cell walll.
2. What is found in a plant cell walll?
3. What is the function of mitochondria?
4. Where does protein synthesis take place?
5. Which cell does not contain a nucleus?
6. Is a yeast cell more like an animal, bacteria or
plant cell – explain your answer.
7. A cell X has a cell wall, nucleus , no
chloroplasts and a permanent vacuole – what type
of cell do you think it is?
8. How do cells get oxygen?
9. Why would oxygen move into a cell?
10. Name 3 tyoes of tissue in a stomach
11. What do plants store in the vacuole?
12. Why do plants store glucose as starch?
13. Give the word equation for photosynthesis
14. What are 3 limiting factors for photosynthesis?
15. What else is needed for photosynthesis?
16. Give 3 substances a plant can make from
glucose
17. What else does a plant use glucose for?
18. What is needed for plants to make proteins?
How do they get it?
19. Name 3 types of plant tissue
20. Name 4 parts of the digestive system that
contain glandular tissue.
21. What is the mesophyll tissue’s function?
22. What does the phloem transport?
23. How could we estimate the number of plants
in a field?
24. Describe how to do a belt transect
25. What factors need to be considered when
deciding how many quadrats to place?
26. What is the mean, mode and median of
12,13,10,9,5,9,12,4,5,9,5,9,10,9
1. Where in a cell are enzymes made?
2. Give 4 types of proteins made in
cells
3. What is a biological catalyst?
4. Why do high temps denature
enzymes?
5. Name 3 types of digestive enzymes
6. What type is amylase?
7. Give 3 types of enzyme made in the
pancreas
8. Give 3 digestive organs where
amylase is produced
9. What type of acid is made in the
stomach
10. What is the purpose of bile?
11. Where is it made and stored?
12.What are fats broken down in to?
13.Why must starch, fats and
protein be digested?
14.What is the optimum temp for
human digestive enzymes?
15.What is the optimum pH for
stomach protease?
16.What would be the optimum pH for
pancreatic proteases?
17. Which 2 types of enzymes are in
biological detergents?
18. Which enzyme is used to make
baby food?
19.Which enzyme would be used to
turn starch into sugar syrup?
20.Why are isomerases used in
slimming foods?
21.What is DNA?
22.What are alleles?
23.What is a recessive allele?
24.What is a dominant allele?
25.What is a chromosome?
26.How many are in a human body
cell?
27.How many in a human sperm cell?
28.What does homozygous mean?
29.What is a genotype?
30.Describe cystic fibrosis
symptoms
31.What are the chances of inheriting
1. Where does aerobic
respiration take place?
2. Give the word equation
3. Give 3 ways in which the
energy is used in animal
cells
4. Give one use of energy in
plants
5. When do plants respire?
6. Name 2 substances
needed by muscles for
aerobic respiration
7. Why must our heart
rate increase when we
exercise? ( 3 reasons)
8. What happens to our
breathing during
exercise? Why?
9. Where and how do we
store glucose?
10.What happens if we
cannot take in enough
oxygen during exercise?
11. What is made in
anaerobic respiration?
12.What is a problem with
build up of lactic acid?
13.How can we remove
lactic acid from the
muscles?
14.Why is it important to
warm down after
exercise?
15.Why do we continue to
breathe heavily after
exercise has finished?
16.What does lactic acid
get broken down in to ?
Give the word equation.
17.Why do we need to eat
more in winter?
18.How would you make