REVIEW OF MATERIALS YOU NEED TO KNOW TO PASS THE REGENTS
1. Primary Sources – Firsthand accounts – an eyewitness, diary/journal entry, auto-biography, personal correspondence or letter,
video footage of an actual event.
2. Secondary Sources – Articles written or created after the fact. Encyclopedias, textbooks, biographies, documentaries.
A. Opinions – Use words such as most/least significant, most superior/inferior, strongest/weakest, more/less
3. Archeologists – study ARTIFACTS, excavate (dig up) old human settlements, and analyze radiocarbon dating
4. Geographers – study the natural environment and how humans use the environment and geography (climate, natural barriers)
a. Physical Maps show physical features such as mountains, rivers, deserts (Sahara in North Africa), topographic=elevation
b. Peninsulas – Korea, India, Italy, Greece. Korean peninsula has acted as a cultural bridge between China and Japan.
5. Economists – study the production and distribution of goods and services (think money and trade)
a. Traditional Economy – bartering goods, subsistent lifestyle (making just enough food to survive), based on customs and
traditional roles in society.
b. Command Economy – Government controls prices and means of production (communism)
c. Market Economy – Based on supply and demand, consumers (buyers) determine the price of goods (capitalism)
d. Mixed Economy – some elements of command (government control) and some elements of market economy
6. Bantu Migrations – Movement/migration of people with common language in Africa seeking farm land and grazing land.
7. Hunters and Gatherers – nomads who searched for plants and food to survive before the Neolithic Rev., had small populations
8. Neolithic Revolution – 12,000 years ago. Domestication of plants (farming) and animals, increased the food supply, led to
permanent settlements, and eventually led to the growth of civilizations
9. Civilizations – advanced society which includes cities, laws, written languages, governments, religions, the division of labor
Famous Written Laws or legal codes include: Hammurabi, 12 Tables, Ten Commandments, and Justinian’s Code
10. River Valleys – First civilizations developed near them 5000 years ago because rivers provided fertile soil for agriculture
(farming), fresh water, and a means for transportation and irrigations systems. The first civilizations were . . .
a. Mesopotamia – Tigris and Euphrates Rivers, Babylonia, Code of Hammurabi (written laws with harsh punishments),
cuneiform (wedged shape writing system), ziggurats. The Fertile Crescent refers to farmland between Tigris and Euphrates.
b. Egypt – Nile River, pyramids, hieroglyphics (picture writing), mummification, pharaohs were like kings.
c. China – Yellow River (Huang He River), nicknamed China’s Sorrow because of devastating floods, used oracle bones
d. India – Indus River, Monsoons (seasonal winds), Harappa and Mohenjo Daro are cities which show urban (city) planning
11. Belief Systems – provide guidelines so that people can live in peace and harmony. Polytheism – belief in many gods.
a. Hinduism – influenced India, REINCARNATION (rebirth of soul), Karma, Dharma, Upanishads, Vedas, Brahma, and . . .
Caste System – Rigid social class system determined at birth and determined a person’s occupation/lifestyle.
b. Buddhism-Goal is to end suffering by giving up selfish desires, Four Noble Truths, Eightfold Path, Nirvana, reincarnation.
c. Confucianism – Influenced China, Filial Piety, respect for family, everyone has a responsibility to follow social order (Five
Relationships), children honor parents, family. Confucianism was studied in order to pass civil service exams.
d. Legalism – Chinese philosophy during Qin Dynasty, used HARSH PUNISHMENTS (similar to Hammurabi’s Code)
e. Animism – Natives in Africa, Asia, Americas – believe spirits exist in nature and ancestors must be worshipped
f. Shinto – Japan – Believe spirits exist in nature and the forces of nature must be worshipped and respected
12. Monotheistic Religions – Judaism, Christianity, and Islam all believe in one God and have their roots in (are based on) Judaism.
a. Judaism – Ten Commandments provide guidelines, Holy Book is the Torah, Diaspora- the scattering of Jewish population
b. Christianity – Based on Judaism, teaches an ethical code of conduct based on the life of Jesus.
c. Islam – Allah (God), Muhammad is the final prophet, Holy Book is Qur’an, Five Pillars include praying 5 times a day, giving
alms to poor and making a pilgrimage to Mecca (Hajj). Sunni and Shia Muslims divided after death of Muhammad.
13. Golden Ages – Times of great cultural achievement and prosperity with stable governments and relative peace. Advancements
in math, science, and architecture and promotion of art and literature. Some famous Golden Ages include . . .
a. Ancient Greek city state of Athens – columned architecture, philosophy of Socrates, Plato, Aristotle, direct-democracy
1. Hellenistic Culture – spreading of Greek culture and blending with Persian, Egyptian, and Indian cultures. This
begins as a result of Alexander the Great’s conquests of Persia, Egypt, and Western India in the 300’s BCE
b. China – Tang and Song Dynasty – gunpowder, civil service exams (based on Confucianism), porcelain, mechanical clocks
c. India – Gupta Empire – Decimal system, concept of zero, Sanskrit, stupas, Caste System determined social order
d. Islam – preserved and used the ideas of Greek, Roman, India, and Byzantine, calligraphy, algebra, geometric shapes,
hospitals with emergency rooms. Used domed structures in architecture (like the Dome of the Rock in Jerusalem)
14. Empires – Extensive (large) areas under the control of a single authority/government
a.Han Dynasty in China – Established the Silk Road (trade networks stretching across Asia to Eastern Europe). Established
roads and canals, civil service exams, invented paper. Collapsed due to political instability and invasions.
b.Roman Empire – Controlled trade networks throughout the Mediterranean Sea which made them wealthy and allowed
cultural diffusion (spreading of ideas). They built an extensive road system which connected their empire and
allowed ideas to spread. Collapsed due to political instability,invasions from foreigners and economic problems
c. Byzantine Empire -(300s – late 1400s) Eastern Half of the Roman Empire, lasted for nearly 1000 more years after Roman
Empire collapses. Capital of Constantinople grew wealthy from trade because it is at a crossroad between Europe
and Asia. Achievements include Justinian’s Code, Hagia Sophia (dome shaped architecture), preserving Greek and
Roman ideas, developing Eastern Orthodox Christianity, and Cyrillic Alphabet. Influenced early Russian history.
d. Ottoman Empire – Controlled Constantinople (Istanbul) after Byzantine, Middle East, parts of South Eastern Europe, and
Eastern Mediterranean trade routes. Suleiman the Magnificent was a famous sultan (monarch). Reached its
height in the late 1600s and collapsed due to nationalism amongst ethnic groups after World War I in 1917.
e. Mongol Empire – Used superior military skills to conquer largest empire ever in the 1200s-1300s, controlled most of Asia
and parts of Eastern Europe, controlled trade routes along the Silk Road and allowed trade and cultural diffusion
to thrive (succeed). Isolated Russia from Western Europe. Famous rulers were Genghis Khan and Kublai Khan.
f. Aztec Empire – In present day Mexico, Created an advanced complex civilization before the arrival of the Europeans.
Adapted to their geography by clearing swamps and creating floating islands called chinampas for farming.
g. Inca Empire – In the Andes Mountains in South America. Built an advanced, complex civilization before the arrival of the
Europeans . Adapted to their geography in the Andes Mountains by building roads and footbridges which
connected their empire. Used terrace farming (steps) to increase agricultural production in the mountains.
h. West African Kingdoms of Ghana, Mali, and Songhai – Gold and Salt Trade networks across the Sahara Desert in North
Africa helped spread Islam to West Africa. Mansa Musa was famous Mali leader who made a pilgrimage to Mecca.
i. Mughal Empire in India – Helped spread Islamic culture to India. Akbar the Great was a famous leader who helped
provide stability and allowed religious toleration and accepted cultural diversity.
Western European History (Western Civilization) Summary (2500 BCE – 1789CE)
15. Ancient Greece (appx. 500 B.C.E. – 2500 years ago)–Developed different city states due to mountainous topography of region.
a. Sparta – Focused on military training beginning at a young age. Sparta defeated Athens in the Peloponnesian Wars.
b. Athens – Golden Age of Greece. Developed a direct democracy (male, land-owning citizens could vote), advancements in
science, math, philosophy and architecture. A democracy is a government/civics in which the citizens/people participate.
16. Roman Republic (500 B.C.E. – 27 BCE – 2000+ years ago) - Laws were the Twelve Tables: legal system which allowed for equality
before
the law and innocent until proven guilty. Government was a republic (form of democracy) where leaders were
elected by the
citizens. Influenced heavily by the Greeks. Ancient Greece and Rome (Greco-Roman ideas) would greatly influence Western
Civilization in the areas of government and law. Government buildings in Western Europe and the U.S.
use Greek and Roman
architecture.
17. Roman Empire (27 BCE – 476 CE – 1500+ years ago) - Strong Central Government! Controlled trade networks throughout the
Mediterranean Sea region (Southern Europe, North Africa, Middle East). Built roads connecting their empire. Allowed
Christianity to spread to Western Europe in the 300’s and 400’s. Collapsed due to weak leadership (political instability),
invasions, and economic problems. Built aqueducts to supply water to cities.
18. Middle Ages or Medieval Europe (476 CE – 1300 CE) – Begins in Europe after the collapse of the Roman Empire. No Strong
Central government. Feudal system develops in which land is exchanged for military service and other obligations.
Feudalism is a rigid social class system in which Knights protected the noble’s land (the manor) and serfs worked on the
land. The Middle Ages focused on the importance of landownership, living on self-sufficient manors (Manorialism), and the
importance of Christianity/religion. The Catholic Church was the only thing that provided stability and unification. Gothic
architecture for cathedrals developed in later Middle Ages. Artwork focused on religious themes.
19. Crusades (1095 – 1291) – Holy Wars between the Muslims and Christians over the Holy Land of Jerusalem. Europeans hoped to
recapture the Holy Land from the Muslims and be forgiven for their sins by fighting. Europeans failed to recapture the Holy
Land, but succeed in bringing back new ideas from the Middle East. This helps to end the Middle Ages and spark cultural
diffusion/trade between Europe and Asia. As trade increases, towns and cities begin to grow in Western Europe. Trade
guilds develop which standardize the prices and requirements for a particular craft.
a. Growth of trade with Asia leads to the spread of the Black Death (Bubonic Plague). The Crusades help to spark the… (20)
20. Renaissance (1300s-1500s) – A rebirth of Ancient Greek and Roman ideas. Artwork and writings become more secular (worldly,
or non-religious). People begin questioning traditional ideas of the Middle Ages. Humanism focused more on individual
achievements rather than religious themes. Renaissance begins in Italy (Venice) because of wealthy merchants along
Mediterranean Sea who pay artists like Leonardo Da Vinci and Michelangelo. Middle Class begin to gain influence.
a. Gutenberg’s Printing Press allows ideas to spread and increases literacy rates in Europe as more books are printed.
b. Machiavelli writes The Prince which advises rulers to do whatever is necessary to maintain power.
21. Scientific Revolution (1500s-1600s) – scientist begin to question traditional ideas from the Middle Ages. Questioning spirit,
scientific method, using logic, reason, and investigative experiments by scientists like Copernicus, Galileo, Bacon, and
Newton. Heliocentric (sun-centered) model of solar system proposed by Copernicus and Galileo questions traditional
geocentric (earth centered) model proposed by Greco-Roman scientist Ptolemy, which had been taught by the church.
22. Protestant Reformation (1500s) – Martin Luther’s 95 Theses written in 1517 protested against corruption in the Catholic Church
and the Church’s sale of indulgences (forgiveness for sins). Luther’s ideas spread because of the printing press. Luther
breaks from the Church and begins translating bibles in the vernacular (home languages). As a result, new Christian
denominations (branches) are formed such as Protestant, Anglican, Calvinist, etc. The Protestant Reformation ends
religious unity in Western Europe and weakens the power of the Catholic Church. Other Protestant leaders include John
Calvin (who teaches predestination) and Henry VIII (Act of Supremacy made him the head of the Church of England).
a. Counter Reformation – Attempt to re-strengthen the power of the Catholic Church. (Inquisition punishes heretics)
23. Age of Exploration (1400s-1600s) – New technology (compass, astrolabe, improvements in cartography, etc.) allows Europeans
to explore further as they searched for faster ways to trade with Asia looking for spices and other Asian goods. Columbus
sails across Atlantic Ocean in 1492. Europeans begin establishing colonies in the Western Hemisphere (Americas).
a. Columbian Exchange – cultural exchange between the Old World (Europe/Asia) and New World (Americas/Western).
b. Spanish Conquistadors – Cortes and Pizarro are responsible for the destruction (defeat) of the Aztec and Inca Empires as
they looked to gain wealth and power for Spain. Leads to Mercantile system (see below) and Spanish Empire.
24. Commercial Revolution (1400s-1600s) – Joint Stock Companies, banking, the growth of capitalism, and expansion of world trade.
a. Capitalism – economic system based on market economy (see 5c above) and private ownership. People invest resources
and money (capital) in order to make a profit. Based on incentive. Banking and Financial Institutions begin to grow.
b. Mercantilism – countries in Europe (like Spain) looked to gain a favorable balance of trade and increase gold supply.
European mother countries (like Spain) established colonies for their benefit by using colonies to acquire
resources. Spanish colonies used the encomienda system in which Native Americans were used as forced labor.
c. Atlantic Slave Trade – European colonies in the Americas began importing slaves from Africa after millions of Native
Americans died of diseases brought by Europeans which Natives had no immunity to. Leads to Triangular trade
routes across Atlantic Ocean. African civilizations begin to decline after losing generations of Africans to slavery.
25. Age of Absolutism (1500s-1700s) – Absolute Monarchs (kings and queens) looked to centralize their power in their countries.
(Louis XIV of France, Philip II of Spain, Henry VIII of England). They gained power because of mercantilism and weakening
power of the Catholic Church because of Protestant Reformation. Also known as autocrats or despots (absolute power).
a. Divine Right Theory –Monarchs justify their political power by saying power to rule comes from God. Similar to China’s
Mandate of Heaven.
b. Peter the Great is a czar (monarch) of Russia who looks to Westernize Russia (shaves the beards of nobles). Catherine
the Great also Westernizes. Russian czars seek warm-waters port on Black Sea to trade during the winter months.
26. Limited Monarchy in England – Magna Carta, English Civil War, Glorious Revolution, and English Bill of Rights all limit the power
of the monarch in England (Constitutional Monarchy). Parliament (democratically elected lawmakers) controls government.
27. Enlightenment (1700s) – Based on the questioning spirit of the Scientific Revolution and using logic, reason, and the laws of
nature, Enlightenment philosophers begin to question governments and society. Enlightenment philosophers question
Absolute Monarchs and support democratic reforms/governments. This leads to American (1776) and French Revolutions.
a. John Locke – All people are born with natural rights of life, liberty, and property. The purpose of governments is to
protect natural rights and citizens have the right to change governments that fail to protect these rights.
Governments should be based on the consent of the governed (the will of the people - democracy).
b. Voltaire – supported free speech, religion, and press. Believed in a separation between church and state.
c. Montesquieu – The best government is one that can’t become too powerful. To prevent the government from having
too much power, create separate branches of government (checks and balances). Used in the U.S. Constitution.
d. Rousseau – Supports DEMOCRACY – a government ruled by the citizens/people.
28. Enlightened Despots – Absolute Monarchs in the 1700s who were influenced by the Enlightenment – allowed religious toleration, etc.
Western European History (Western Civilization) Summary (1789 CE – 1900 CE)
29. French Revolution (1789-1815) – Political and social change by the people of France begins in 1789.
a. Causes – 1. The desire to overthrow an absolute monarch (Louis XVI). 2. Unfair social classes called estates – The First
Estate (Clergy) and Second Estate (Nobles) control most of the land and power. The Third Estate (Commoners and
Middle Class) have very few rights. 3. Inequalities in the tax structure – Third Estate paid all the taxes to support
higher classes. 4. The Enlightenment – ideas begin to spread to middle class in France who seek a change.
b. Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen (1789) – Document which outlines the goals of the French Revolution.
Based on the ideas of the Enlightenment. Promises equality before the law and basic freedoms. Ends the
privileges of nobles. Middle Class begin to gain more influence in France and Europe.
c. Reign of Terror - Radical stage of Revolution led by Robespierre and Jacobins. Execute anyone opposed to the Revolution.
d. Napoleon – Military general who provides stability and order. Napoleonic Code is laws which establish equality before
the law and other Enlightenment ideas. Napoleon Crowns himself emperor and conquers a large empire in
Europe. He is defeated after attempting to invade Russia during cold winter months with a limited supply line.
e. Congress of Vienna – Attempts to establish a balance of power in Europe (too prevent one country from becoming too
powerful) after the defeat of Napoleon. Monarchs are restored to power in Europe, including in France.
30. Latin American Independence (early 1800s) – Spain’s colonies in Latin America were controlled by Spanish born elites
(Peninsulares). Spanish descendants living in Latin America feel no loyalty to Spanish crown. Natives and Africans have no
political power in Latin America. Independence movements are inspired by the Enlightenment and the American and
French Revolutions. The first Latin American revolution is in Haiti (a French colony) in 1804 led by Touissaint L’Overture.
a. Touissaint L’Overture, Simon Bolivar, Jose de San Martin, Miguel Hidalgo are all inspired by Latin American nationalism
and all lead Latin American independence movements in the early 1800s (19th Cenutry).
31. Nationalism – Pride in your country and ethnic group. Germany unites as a country (German unification) because of the work of
nationalist leader Bismarck (Blood an Iron). Italy unites as a country (Italian unification) because of nationalists Mazzini,
Cavour, and Garibaldi. German unification upsets the balance of power in Europe created by the Congress of Vienna.
32. Agricultural Revolution (1700s) – technological advancements (new machines) in farming increase the food supply and increase
the population as the life expectancy begins to increase. Farmers/rural workers begin to lose jobs and migrate to cities
(urbanization). The old system of making clothes by hand becomes inefficient which leads to factory system and the . . .
33. Industrial Revolution (1700s-1800s) – a major change in the way goods are produced. Machines powered by new sources of
energy (like steam) begin to mass produce textiles (clothes) and other goods in factories. Urbanization (movement to
cities) increases rapidly. Cities become overcrowded and terrible conditions exist for poor workers in factories and homes.
a. Great Britain – Industrial Revolution begins in G.B. because of their access to abundant coal and iron resources, and the
amount of investment capital available. The government of Great Britain supports business growth with policy of…
b. Laissez-Faire Capitalism – economic policy supported by economist Adam Smith which advocates minimal or no
involvement from the government in business. Instead, let the market place (supply and demand) and private
businesses make the decisions about economy. Opponents feel this leads to inequalities between rich and poor.
c. Socialism – economic system which develops in response to the problems of capitalism and the Industrial Revolution in
which wealth is distributed evenly for the benefit of all the community. No rich and no poor.
d. Karl Marx – German socialist who co-authors the Communist Manifesto with Friedrich Engels. Marx believes history is a
struggle between economic classes (rich and poor) and Marx wants the workers (proletariat) to rise up and
overthrow the capitalist owners (bourgeoisie) to create a classless society. A communist revolution does not occur
in the 1800s because of government regulations and the formation of labor unions which protect worker’s rights.
34. Imperialism (Late 1800s –Early 1900s) – When the stronger industrialized nations of Europe (and Japan) began taking over and
establishing colonies in Africa and Asia controlling the political and/or economic activities of these colonies.
a. Causes – 1. Industrialized nations were seeking raw materials/natural resources for industrialization and new markets to
sell their manufactured goods. 2. Nationalism caused competition for largest empires and overseas
territories. 3. White Man’s Burden – Europeans felt a responsibility to educate natives and teach them
Christianity. 4. Social Darwinism – Europeans justified their actions by claiming European race was the “fittest”.
b. Africa – Scramble for Africa was the race by Europeans to take land in Africa in the late 1800s. Prior to the 1800s,
Europeans could not explore the interior of Africa because of its geographic obstacles/barriers (1500s-1700s).
1. The Berlin Conference (1884-85) – Europeans establish rules for colonizing Africa. Africa is partitioned (divided)
without regard for African ethnic and cultural identities.
c. India – Controlled by the British East India Company – India provides a huge market for British manufactured goods.
British are able to dominate India because of superior military technology and Indian people unable to unite due to
ethnic and religious diversity in India.
1. Sepoy Mutiny (1857) – Indian attempt to remove foreign influence of the British – crushed by British military.
d. Africa and India - The British improve roads, build railroads, and improve education in their colonies in order to increase
their political and economic control of the region and make it easier to obtain resources/materials.
e. China – China had been isolated from 1500s-1800s due to ethnocentricism (belief that their race was superior). The
Chinese wanted no foreign goods because they felt foreign goods were inferior (lesser).
1. Opium Wars – Britain began selling Opium to China which leads to war between China and Britain. Britain wins
with superior military technology. Unequal treaties (Treaty of Nanjing) allow China to be carved into
spheres of influence by the British and other European powers. Spheres of influence are areas where
foreigners control trade and economic activity. (Britain, France, Russia, Germany, and Japan)
2. Boxer Rebellion (1899-1901) – Chinese attempt to remove foreign influence – crushed by Europeans,
Americans, and Japanese because of their superior technology. Similar to India’s Sepoy Mutiny.
35. Meiji Restoration in Japan (Late 1800s-early 1900s) – Japan becomes a modern/western industrialized nation.
A. Tokugawa Shoguns (1600s-1800s) ruled Japan under feudal system (similar to Medieval Europe). Samurai were the
powerful warriors who protected the land and followed a code of conduct called Bushido Code. (Similar to Knight’s
chivalry). The Tokugawa’s most significant foreign policy was Japan’s virtual isolation from the world.
B. Arrival of U.S. Commodore Matthew Perry (1853-54) – Signals the end of Japan’s policy of isolation and the opening of
trade and diplomatic relations between Japan and the West after Japan agrees to the Treaty of Kanagawa (1854).
C. Meiji Restoration – (1868-1912) – Japan began a policy of modernization under the new Emperor Meiji. Japan
modernizes/westernizes the economy, the military, the government, society. Japan begins to INDUSTRIALIZE.
Japan’s lack of natural resources/raw materials needed for industrialization leads to Japan following a policy of
imperialism. Japan fights and wins wars against China (over Korea) in 1895 and Russia (over Manchuria) in 1905.
36. Irish Potato Famine (1845-1852) – period of mass starvation (famine) from crop failure leads to mass emigration of Irish people.
World War I to the Start of the Cold War (1914-1961)
37. World War I (1914-1918)- Caused by imperialistic and nationalistic rivalries between European nations. Powerful European
nations began building up military arms (militarism) to compete. Europeans believed peace could be maintained by
forming alliance systems (Triple Alliance and Triple Entente) to keep balance of power. This leads to World War.
a. Balkans – area in Southeastern Europe. Ethnic tensions and imperialistic claims of the Austro-Hungarian and Ottoman
Empires lead to problems. Ethnic and nationalistic tensions threaten to break these empires apart.
b. Assassination of the Austrian Archduke by a Serbian nationalist in the Balkans sparks WWI (immediate cause of the war)
c. New technology from Industrial Revolution leads to increased military casualties (deaths and injuries) during the war.
d. Russia forced to leave the war and sign a peace agreement with Germany in 1917 because conditions led the Russians to
spark a revolution to overthrow the czars. (Russian Revolution – see below)
e. The United States enters the war in 1917 because Germany was violating America’s freedom of the seas/trade.
f. The Ottoman Empire was responsible for the genocide (killing of ethnic group) of over 1 million Armenians during war.
f. The Treaty of Versailles – Ends World War I. Germany loses the war and is forced to pay reparations (war damages) and
strip their military. This leads to economic problems in Germany and Germany’s desire to regain its power and
prestige (importance) in Europe and the world. Historians often blame The Treaty of Versailles for the rise of
Hitler’s fascist government and the start of World War II.
g. New nations formed in Eastern Europe after the break-up of the Austro-Hungarian, German, and Ottoman empires. New
nations include Poland, Czechoslovakia, Yugoslavia, Austria, Hungary, Turkey and show the success of nationalism.
h. The League of Nations – formed after World War I to maintain peace. Fails in the 1930s as World War II begins.
i. Kemal Ataturk – westernizes/modernizes the country of Turkey by establishing democratic reforms, increasing the rights
of women, and placing less influence on Islamic religion (which angers many Muslim leaders).
38. Russian Revolution (1917) – Political and social change by the people of Russia begins in 1917. Russia becomes Soviet Union.
a. Causes: 1. Motivated by a desire to overthrow a monarch (Czar Nicolas II), 2. Inequalities in the tax and social structure –
90% of Russia were peasants. 3. Horrible conditions created by World War I
b. Lenin and the Bolsheviks – communist group who promise Peace, Bread, and Land. Peace settlement with Germany,
food for starving peasants, and land reform for peasants. The communists (who want equality) promise to
redistribute the land owned by the nobility to the peasants.
c. Lenin’s Rule – His New Economic Policy allows elements of state capitalism: However, Lenin’s policies help Soviet Union
become the first country with a communist economy. Lenin creates a totalitarian state and a command economy.
1. Communism – based on the principles of Karl Marx, involves government control of economic activities.
39. Stalin’s Totalitarian State – Totalitarian states involved censorship, secret police, propaganda, and jailing or murdering of
political opponents. Stalin’s Great Purge during the 1930s sends millions of opponents to labor camps or death in Siberia.
a. Five Year Plans – Stalin’s forced communist programs to increase industrial production/heavy industry. The program is
successful in making the Soviet Union a superpower; however, it ignores production of consumer goods.
b. Collectivization – Plan to increase agricultural production – fails and leads to famine/starvation especially in Ukraine.
40. Worsening Economic Conditions lead to World War II (1920s-1939) – Poor economic conditions lead to the rise of fascist
totalitarian dictatorships in Italy and Germany and a militaristic state in Japan. The League of Nations fails to stop them.
a. Japanese Aggression – Japan’s economic problems lead to the rise of military dictatorship under Hideki Tojo. Japan
begins a policy of imperialism/expansionism searching for resources and begins war against China in the 1930s.
b. Fascism in Italy and Germany – Fascism is a form of totalitarian state that glorifies the state/nation above all else.
Fascist leaders emphasize extreme nationalism and racial superiority. They are also anti-communists.
1. Benito Mussolini – His Black Shirts lead a March on Rome in 1922. Mussolini comes to power due to economic
problems in Italy. Reorganizes the economy and rules as a dictator limiting freedoms.Imperializes Ethiopia
2. Adolf Hitler – Comes to power due to economic problems suffered in Germany as a result of Treaty of Versailles
and Great Depression. Hitler and his Nazi Party offer simple solutions to the complex problems. Hitler
begins to expand German military and violates Treaty of Versailles.Nazi’s begin persecution of Jews in 30s.
41. World War II (1939-1945) – Prior to war, Hitler (Germany) and Stalin (Soviet Union) sign a non-aggression pact.
a. 1938 – Britain’s Chamberlain meets with Hitler in Munich, Germany and he appeases Hitler by giving in to Hitler’s
aggressive demands and allowing Hitler to take the Sudetenland portion of Czechoslovakia in order to avoid war.
b. 1939 – Hitler breaks Munich Pact by taking more land. Hitler’s invasion of Poland in September begins World War II.
c. 1940 – Battle of Britain – Britain holds off German air attack preventing Germany from controlling all of Western Europe.
d. 1941 – Hitler breaks non-aggression pact with Soviet Union and begins the siege of Leningrad (Eastern Front War).
Japan attacks U.S. Naval Base at Pearl Harbor, Hawaii killing over 2000 Americans and bringing U.S. into war.
e. 1943 – Battle of Stalingrad – Hitler and Nazi’s encounter harsh winter conditions in Russia forcing German retreat.
f. 1944 – D-Day – Normandy Invasion – Allies (British and American) invasion to recapture France from German forces.
g. 1945 – Hitler commits suicide in April and Germany surrenders in May. The U.S. drops atomic bombs on Japanese cities
of Hiroshima and Nagasaki in August leading to Japanese surrender in September and the end of World War II.
42. Holocaust – Hitler and the Nazi’s Final Solution to commit genocide of Jews and other ethnic groups. Over 6 million Jews killed.
The genocide by the Nazi’s was very well planned and involved the coordination of many people.
a. Nuremberg Trials – Held after World War II. Nazi officials and leaders were held accountable for their actions during the
war and found guilty of committing crimes against humanity.
43. United Nations – Created after World War II to resolve conflicts between nations peacefully.
44. Cold War (1945-1991)– Begins after World War II – A political, economic, and military competition between the United States
and the Soviet Union. Both countries build thousands of nuclear weapons which prevent them from ever attacking other.
a. Soviet influence of Eastern Europe - Soviet Union establishes satellite nations in Eastern Europe after World War II which
are extensions of communist power.The Iron Curtain divides communist EasternEurope from non-communist West
b. Containment – U.S. policy to prevent the spread of communism during the Cold War. Two examples include:
1. Marshall Plan – $13 billion to provide economic recovery of war torn Western Europe to prevent communism.
2. Truman Doctrine - $400 million in economic aid to Greece and Turkey to help put down communist threats.
c. NATO (North Atlantic Treaty Organization) – U.S. and Western alliance system to prevent attack from Eastern Europe.
d. Warsaw Pact – Soviet alliance with Eastern European nations (East Germany, Poland, Czechoslovakia, Hungary, Romania,
Bulgaria) to prevent an attack from Western Europe.
45. Berlin during the Cold War – Germany was divided into East Germany (communist) and West Germany (democratic). The capital
of Berlin was also divided despite lying within East Germany. Stalin blockaded West Berlin in 1948 leading to Berlin Airlift.
a. Berlin Wall – constructed in 1961 by Soviets to prevent people from escaping communism into West Berlin. The wall led
to the separation of families and friends and over 150 people were killed trying to escape between 1961 and 1989.
Cold War Hot Spots (1945-1961)
46. Eastern Europe – Soviet satellite states in Eastern Europe made attempts to rebel against/oppose communist/Soviet rule such as
in Budapest, Hungary in 1956 and Prague, Czechoslovakia in 1968. The Soviets crushed these rebellions with prompt and
severe repression by sending in tanks and troops. Solidarity (1979) was a labor union in Poland, led by Lech Walesa, which
also opposed communism and Soviet rule.
47. Cuba – Cuba became the first communist country in the Western Hemisphere when Fidel Castro led a revolution to
overthrow dictator Fulgencio Batista in 1959. Castro promised land reform to peasants and followed Marxist principles.
a. Cuban Missile Crisis (1962) – The Soviet Union built nuclear missile sites in Cuba capable of reaching U.S. U.S. President
Kennedy responds by blockading Cuba. Soviet leader Khrushchev agrees to remove missiles, avoiding war.
48. Korean War (1950-1953) – Korea was divided after World War II into a communist North Korea and a non-communist South
Korea along the 38th parallel. In 1950, North Korea invaded the South to reunite the country. The United States intervened
in order to stop the spread of communism. As a result of the war, Korea remained divided.
a. Tensions still exist today and North Korea has developed a nuclear weapon under dictatorship of Kim Jong family
49. Vietnam War (1956-1975) – Former French colony of Vietnam was divided into a communist North Vietnam and a noncommunist South Vietnam after the French left in 1954. North Vietnamese communist nationalist Ho Chi Minh followed
Marxist policies. Ho Chi Minh hoped to reunite Vietnam as a communist country. The U.S. intervened again to stop the
spread of communism. The U.S. lost support for the war at home and withdrew in 1973. In 1975, North Vietnam captured
South Vietnam’s capital, Saigon, and reunited the country as a communist nation.
50. Cambodia (1970s) – Communist group spread to Cambodia during the Vietnam War. The communist group was the Khmer
Rouge led by Pol Pot (who followed Marxist policies). Pol Pot and the Khmer Rouge led attempted genocide against their
own people (Cambodians) in order to remove western influence from the region.
51. End of the Cold War – The Soviet Union experienced economic problems because of maintaining the high cost of the nuclear
arms race with the U.S., fighting a costly war with Afghanistan (1980s), and the lack of incentive to produce under a
communist system (which promises equality).
a. Mikhail Gorbachev – Soviet leader who reformed the Soviet Union politically and economically. Glasnost was a political
reform allowing more “openness”/freedom. Perestroika was an economic reform which allowed elements of capitalism.
b. The Fall of the Berlin Wall (1989) symbolized the end of the Cold War and the end of Soviet domination of Eastern
Europe. Democracy movements spread to Eastern European nations and East and West Germany re-unite.
c. The Break-up of the Soviet Union (1991) – The Soviet Union broke into 15 separate republics including Russia, Ukraine,
Belarus, Kazakhstan, Georgia.
52. Modern Russia – Has experienced ethnic tensions from regions, like Chechnya, seeking independence.
53. Eastern Europe – Ethnic tensions still exist throughout Eastern Europe. Former state of Yugoslavia broke apart along ethnic lines
into Serbia, Bosnia-Herzegovina, Croatia, Slovenia, etc. – Serbian leader Slobodan Milosevic began an ethnic cleansing
(genocide) against Bosnians and Kosovars in the 1990s. Milosevic was charged with crimes against humanity for these
human rights violations.
Modern China, India, Africa, and the Middle East
54. Sun Yat-Sen – China became a republic after overthrowing the monarchy in 1911 thanks to nationalist leader Sun Yat-Sen.
55. Mao Zedong – led a communist movement in China by promising land reform to the huge peasant population in China.
Nationalists (led by Chiang Kai Shek) failed to meet the peasants’ needs. Mao forced to flee at one point in a 6000 mile
retreat known as the Long March; however, Mao and the communists are victorious and China became communist in 1949.
a. The Great Leap Forward (1958) – Mao’s plan to increase industrial and agricultural (farm) output. Led to mass
starvations on government run communes, yet Mao used censorship and secret police to silence critics
and maintain authority. This is an example of a forced communist policy (similar to Stalin’s Five Year Plan)
b. The Cultural Revolution (1966) – Mao’s plan to renew the spirit and enthusiasm of the Communist Revolution
and to enforce Mao’s teachings. Red Guard (youth) carry Mao’s Little Red Books and eliminate any
opposition to Mao. The Red Guard jail or murder many doctors, teachers, etc. and disrupt China’s
educational, political, and economic systems.
56. Deng Xiaoping – His Four Modernizations looked to improve industrial and agricultural production. Deng’s economic
reforms include allowing foreign investments into China and allowing elements of capitalism and free markets
into Chinese economy. The result is huge economic growth in China, which continues today.
a. Tiananmen Square Massacre (1989) – students gathered in Tiananmen Square began demanding democratic
reforms in China. Deng and the Communist party responded by sending in tanks to repress/crush this rebellion.
57. China today – The communist party has received criticism from the United States for its strict censorship and poor human
rights record. China will not recognize the independence of regions of Tibet and the country of Taiwan.
58. Indian Independence from Great Britain – Indian nationalism and desire for independence grew stronger after the Sepoy
Mutiny (1857) and the Amritsar Massacre (1919). Indian nationalist Mohandas Gandhi leads independence movement.
a. Gandhi – Used passive resistance (non-violent protests) and civil disobedience to peacefully protest British/foreign rule.
The homespun movement was a boycott of British made cloth which hurt the British financially because Britain
considered India a major market for their manufactured goods. The Salt March led to Gandhi and others being
arrested, but helped draw worldwide attention in favor of Indian majority to gain Independence from British.
b. Partition of India (1948) – After India gained independence from British, India was divided/partitioned because of
religious differences between the Hindus and Muslims. Muslims feared being the minority in India and this led to
the creation of the separate Islamic Republic of Pakistan. The migration that resulted led to extreme violence.
59. Modern India – Developed a parliamentary democracy (a British/Western influence) and today is the world’s largest democracy.
Huge population in India has resulted in ethnic tensions and religious tensions between Hindus, Muslims, and Sikhs. India
and Pakistan’s relations remain weak and both countries have developed nuclear weapons threatening regional peace.
60. African Independence Movements – Begin after World War II (1945) as European nations (like the British) no longer had the
resources to maintain their colonial empires. African nationalism played a major role in leading to independence.
a. Kwame Nkrumah (Ghana), Jomo Kenyatta (Kenya), and Kenneth Kaunda (Zambia) are African nationalist leaders who
led independence movements in their countries. Modern African boundaries tend to follow European colonial
territorial boundaries which led to ethnic violence in newly independent African nations.
b. Ethnic Violence – The various geographic features of Africa have resulted in different ethnic, tribal, and cultural
differences which have made it difficult for Africans to unite. Examples of genocide in Africa have included
Rwanda (Hutu’s and Tutsi’s) in the 1990s and more recently in the Sudan. Modern African governments have
experienced political instability and military dictators. Also an AIDS epidemic has spread through Africa.
61. Apartheid in South Africa – Racial segregation/separation policy put in place by the ruling white minority. Blacks (the majority)
lived in poor areas and received very little education and health care because of racist policies of the white government.
62. Nelson Mandela – Black South African and member of the African National Congress who protested apartheid and was arrested
serving 27 years in prison. South African President F.W. de Klerk ended apartheid in the early 1990’s after foreign nations
placed economic sanctions on South Africa (a boycott South African goods) which put pressure on the South African
government to change its policy. Mandela was released from prison and was elected president in the first free elections for
all races in South Africa in 1994.
63. Middle East – an important political location due to large reserves of natural resource petroleum (oil) and strategic location.
a. OPEC – (Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries) consists of several Middle East/North African countries,
Indonesia, and Venezuela. The purpose is to regulate/control the production and price of oil.
64. Arab-Israeli Conflict in the Middle East – Arab Palestinians (Muslims) and Israelis (Jews) have historic claims to and claim
sovereignty (control) over the same land surrounding Jerusalem/Palestine. Zionism was a Jewish nationalist movement in
the 1800s that supported a Jewish homeland in Palestine. The Balfour Declaration was a British proclamation that
supported a Jewish homeland. In 1948, Palestine is partitioned/divided into Palestine and Israel (a Jewish
independent state). Several wars (Six Day War, Yom Kippur War) fought between Israel and surrounding Arab
neighbors.
a. Camp David Accords (1979) – Peace agreement between Egypt and Israel in which Egypt becomes the first
country in the Middle East to recognize Israel’s existence. Other peace agreements (Oslo Accords in 1994)
have also been attempted; however, violence and instability has been ongoing. Israel remains the only stable
democracy in the Middle East.
65. Iran under Shah Mohammad Reza Pahlavi – He came to power in the 1950s and he modernizes/westernizes Iran. He gave more
rights to women and weakened Islamic influence on society. This angered many Muslim religious leaders. The Shah exiled
many religious leaders including Ayatollah Khomeini (see below).
66. Islamic Revolution in Iran (1979) – Led by Ayatollah Khomeini. Muslim religious leaders felt that traditional values were being
undermined (weakened) by the new Western ideas introduced by the Shah. The Shah is overthrown and Iran became an
Islamic Fundamentalist State. Islamic Fundamentalism rejects all western ideas and seeks to return Muslims to a more
traditional Islamic way of life. They hope to eliminate any foreign influence in their nation which might threaten
traditional values. Iran under the Ayatollah banned all western books, music, and movies. They have also limited the rights
of women. The government limited freedoms and restricted many rights of people within Iran.
67. Iraq – Dictator Saddam Hussein was responsible for ethnic killing/genocide of Kurds in Iraq. Iraq invaded Kuwait in 1990 to
secure oil reserves leading to the Persian Gulf War (1991). Saddam Hussein was removed from power by U.S. forces in
2003 and hanged for crimes against Iraqi people. A democratic government has been installed; however, democracy has
struggled because of ethnic/religious differences.
Other Important Facts to Remember
68. Green Revolution – A program in the 1940s-1960s which increased agricultural production worldwide based on technological
advancements in farming. It focused on food production for developing nations like India and countries in Africa.
69. European Union – a coalition of European countries that has reduced regional trade barriers in Europe. (Creating the Euro)
70. NAFTA – North American Free Trade Agreement has reduced trade barriers between the U.S., Canada, and Mexico.
71. Desertification – spreading of desert land caused by overgrazing and destruction of topsoil. Occurring in Sahara Desert in North
Africa.
72. Deforestation – Cutting down forests (such as Amazon Rain Forest in South America) to clear space for farmland and/or
residential/business locations. Slash and burn technique involved clearing forest space and burning the land.
73. Global Warming – The rising of the average temperature worldwide, believed to be caused by the burning of fossil fuels like coal
and oil in an industrialized world. Solutions include government regulations creating emissions standards and searching for
alternate fuel sources.