Teori-teori Pembangunan
Sumber Manusia
Motivation and
Hygiene Factors
Frederick Herzberg
(1923 – 2000)
Tempat Frederick Herzberg
dilahirkan
Tempat kelahiran Frederick
Herzberg sekarang
Teori Motivasi – Kebersihan Herzberg’
Teori ini memberikan penekanan kepada Motivasi
dan Kepuasan Kerja dan Hasil Kerja yang boleh
mengatasi Ketidak-Puasan.
Keperluan Motivator berkait rapat dengan cara
perlaksanaan kerja —autonomi, tanggungjawab, kerja
yang menarik.
Keperluan kebersihan berkait rapat kontek fizikal dan
psikologikal kerja— environment kerja yang selesa, gaji,
kestabilan kerja.
 Keperluan Kebersihan yang tidak dipenuhi membentuk
Ketidakpuasan tetapi Kepuasan Keperluan Kebersihan tidak
menyumbang kepada Motivasi atau Kepuasan Kerja.
 Herzberg:
 Kontek Kerja adalah sumber Ketidakpuasan.
 Masalah dengan faktor Kebersihan (e.g., gaji,
keadaan kerja) menyumbang kepada
Ketidakpuasan. Jika tidak banyak masalah maka
rendah Ketidakpuasan.
 Keadaan kerja - Penyumbang Kepuasan Kerja
 Faktor Motivator (e.g., pencapaian,
tanggungjawab) berkait dengan perlaksanaan
kerja. Kepuasan Kerja yang tinggi menyebabkan
perlaksanaan kerja yang juga tinggi.
 Frederick Herzberg mengatkan dua dimensi yang
berbeza menyumbangkan kepada tingkahlaku kerja –
Faktor Kebersihan dan Motivasi.
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Faktor Kebersihan adalah elemen seperti keadaan kerja, gaji,
polisi, perhubungan.
Faktor Motivasi memenuhi kehendak yang tinggi dan ini
termasuk; pencapaian, perakuan, tanggungjawab dan
peluang untuk berkembang.
 Motivator yang memuaskan pekerja – perkara
yang meransang mereka untuk bekerja dalam
kumpulan, akur kepada kumpulan dan
menyumbangkan.
 Motivator kerap dikaitkan dengan pencapaian.
Perakuan positif Penyelia dan rakan sekerja
ketika perjumpaan formal misalnya ketika
mesyuarat.
Faktor Motivator dan Kebersihan
Faktor kebersihan membantu mengelak ketidak-puasan.
Faktor yang membantu pekerja.
i) Environment kerja & sasaran kehendak asas
ii) Gaji
iii) Kelebihan/ Faedah/ (Benefits) – Insuran Kesihatan
iv) Polisi Syarikat dan Pengurusan
v) Keadaan Kerja – Ruang bekerja
Faktor Motivator
1. Kandungan tugasan/ kerja – apakah yang
dipertanggungjawabkan?
2. Perakuan
3. Tanggungjawab
4. Pencapaian
5. Perkembangan dan pembelajaran
Faktor Kebersihan
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Gaji
Polisi syarikat
Keadaan Kerja
Kelebihan/ Faedah
Kestabilan Kerja
Faktor Motivasi
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Peningkatan Kerjaya
Perkembangan Individu
Perakuan
Tanggungjawab
Pencapaian
Faktor Kebersihan
Situasi kerja/ Environment kerja
Menyumbangkan kepada
ketidak-selesaan dan
mengakibatkan rasa sakit.
Apakah yang akan berlaku
kepada pekerja?
Faktor Motivasi
Situasi kerja/ Environment kerja
menyumbang kepada
kepuasan kerja dan
perkembangan psikologikal.
- Apakah yang akan berlaku
kepada pekerja?
Motivasi Tinggi
Motivasi Rendah
HT
kurang rungutan
kurang rungutan
HR
banyak rungutan
banyak rungutan
Kepuasan Kerja
Sikap positif atau negatif pekerja terhadap
kerja.
Pengukuran – interpretasi kerja/ perbualan
Contoh ?
Kesan Ketidak-puasan Kerja
- Ponteng
- Berhenti kerja
- Pencapaian
Grid Penguruan Blake dan
Mouton
Sistem Likert
Teori Z Ouchi
Grid Pengurusan Blake dan
Mouton
Teori ini diperkenalkan pada 1964 bertujuan
menerangkan huraian gaya kepimpinan
pengurus untuk tujuan meningkatkan
kecekapan dan keberkesanan organisasi.
Pengurus yang efisyen:
1. Tumpu kepada pekerja (Teori Hubungan
Kemanusiaan)
2. Tumpu kepada produktiviti (Teori
Pengurusan Klasikal dan Saintifik)
Grid Pengurusan Blake dan
Mouton
Grid kepimpinan utk menerangkan gaya kepimpinan.
LIMA jenis gaya pengurusan:
1. Pengurusan Lemah (Impoverished Management)
2. Pengurusan Kelab Riadah (Country Club
Management)
3. Authority-Compliance
4. Pengurusan Pasukan (Team Management)
5. Pengurusan Pertengahan (Mid-of-the-Road
Management)
The New Managerial Grid
Insert Figure 2.2
Blake and Mouton’s Managerial Grid
•Authority Compliance (9,1)
•Classical theory
•Country Club (1,9)
•Informal grapevine
•Impoverished (1,1)
•Laissez-faire
•Middle-of-the-Road (5,5)
•Compromise (carrot & stick)
•Team (9,9)
•Human Resources Approach
•Promote the conditions that
integrate creativity, high
productivity, and high morale
through concerted team action
Likert’s System of Management

Exploitive Autocratic

Benevolent Autocratic

Consultative

Participative Team
Perbezaan keempat-empat sistem ada dari aspek motivasi, komunikasi,
pembuatan keputusan, penyediaan maklumat, kawalan, struktur pengaruh
dan persepsi.
Kajian Likert mendapati kebanyakan organisasi mengamalkan sistem 4 (
Pembabitan Organisasi/ Participative Team)
Ciri-ciri sistem 4:
1. Terdapat hubungan saling membantu ketua dan pekerja bawahan.
2. Proses pembuatan keputusan adalah secara kolektif.
3. Ahli organisasi juga merupakan ahli unit dalam organisasi.
4. Organisasi mempunyai matlamat pencapaian tinggi.
 Four Systems of Management: Rensis
Likert
 Management is crticial to all organizational
activities and outcomes
 Continuum that ranges from more classically
oriented system to one based on human
resources theory
 Of all the tasks of management, managing the
human component is the central and most
important task
 High producing departments and organizations
tend toward System IV; low producing units
favor System I
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System I - Exploitative Authoritative
System II - Benevolent Authoritative
System III - Consultative
System IV - Participative
Blake and Mouton’s Managerial Grid
 Stresses interrelationship between production (task) and
people
 Management’s main purpose is to promote a culture in the
organization that allows for high production at the same time
that employees are fostered in their professional and
personal development
 Managerial Grid - now Leadership Grid (Blake & McCanse)
(Figure 3.3, p. 59)
 FOCUS: Manger’s Assumptions about CONCERN for
PEOPLE and CONCERN for PRODUCTION
 Assessment instrument does not represent personality traits
of the manager -- instead, indicate a specific orientation to
production and people
 Concern for PEOPLE
 Degree of personal commitment to one’s job
 Trust-based accountability (vs. obediencebased accountability)
 Self-esteem for the individual
 Interpersonal relationships with co-workers
 Concern for PRODUCTION
 Use of people and technology to accomplish
organizational tasks
 Concern for is not about quantity or quality
 Assessment instrument does not represent
personality traits of the manager -- instead,
indicate a specific orientation to production
and people
Blake and Mouton’s Managerial Grid
•Authority Compliance (9,1)
•Classical theory
•Country Club (1,9)
•Informal grapevine
•Impoverished (1,1)
•Laissez-faire
•Middle-of-the-Road (5,5)
•Compromise (carrot & stick)
•Team (9,9)
•Human Resources Approach
•Promote the conditions that
integrate creativity, high
productivity, and high morale
through concerted team action
Miles’ Human Resources Theory
 Increased satisfaction is related to the
improved decision making and self-control
that occurs due to participation that is
genuinely solicited and heard
 Two prevalent Human Resources Theories
 Rensis Liker
 Blake & Mouton (Blake & McCanse)
Teori Z Ouchi
Teori alternatif kepada Teori X dan Y dan teori
ini adalah berdasarkan corak pengurusan
Jepun.
Teori Z lebih mengutamakan pembentukan dan
penyuburan sumber manusia dalam organisasi.
Teori Argyris
Menekankan peranan individu dalam
organisasi. Menyokong komunikasi terbuka
dalam organisasi dan penglibatan dlm
membuat keputusan.
Implikasi Teori-teori Sumber Manusia terhadap Komunikasi
Kandungan
Komunikasi
Arah Komunikasi
Berkaitan tugas,
sosial dan inovasi
Pelbagai arah dan
antara kumpulan
Saluran Komunikasi Semua saluran
Gaya komunikasi
Formal dan tidak
formal
Kesimpulan
Pendekatan Sumber Manusia dalam pengurusan
adalah kesan kelemahan Teori Hubungan
Kemanusiaan.
Prinsip-prinsip Sumber Manusia dapat dibentuk
dalam organisasi menerusi partisipasi, proses
pembuatan keputusan, daya inovasi. Ini jelas
menerusi teori Grid Pengurusan Blake dan
Mouton, Sistem Likert 4, Teori Z Ouchi dan Teori
Argyris.
Terdapat sifat kepelbagaian dalam komunikasi
dalam organisasi sumber manusia.
Teori Sistem
Ludwig Von Bertalanffy
Merujuk kepada organisasi sebagai mempunyai TIGA komponen:
Susunan Hierarki (Hierarchical Ordering)
Pembentukan organisasi menyerupai satu sistem yang kompleks seperti
sistem biologi tubuh manusia. Di dalam sistem tersebut terdapat subsistem yang membantu proses pengorganisasian.
Saling Bergantung dan Memerlukan (Interdependence)
Satu sistem yang besar memerlukan sub-sistem yang kecil untuk
beroperasi.
Keterbukaan (Permeability)
Organisasidiandaikan sebagai organism hidup yang memerlukan elemen
luar untuk beroperasi. Elemen keterbukaan menyebabkan organisasi
menerima inovasi luar.
Proses Sistem
Sistem diterjemahkan menerusi proses
input-throughput-output.
“inputs” adalah bahan atau maklumat
persekitaran luar yang masuk ke dalam
organisasi menerusi elemen keterbukaan.
Menerusi proses transformasi aktiviti
“throughput” berlaku dan menghasilkan
“output”.
Sistem mentransformasikan output kepada
environment luar
e.g.
Kilang Perabut  perabut  public
Bahan mentah
“input”
“throughput”
“output”
Ciri-ciri Sistem
Holistik -- Sistem diterangkan sebagai
menyeluruh/ besar. Sesuatu sistem itu
bersifat holistik kerana setiap anggota
sistem bergantung antara satu dengan
yang lain. Organisasi juga akan kukuh
apabila terdapat amalan berkerja bersama.
Equifinality -- Untuk mencapai sesuatu
matlamat itu banyak cara yang boleh
dilakukan. Pelbagai cara tersebut akan
dilakukan untuk tujuan pencapaian
metlamat organisasi.
Entropi Negatif -- Kecenderungan sistem
yang mengamalkan dasar tertutup untuk
mengalami kemusnahan. Sistem yang
mengamalkan dasar terbuka mampu
menghalang kemusnahan.
Kepelbagaian Keperluan -- Kepelbagaian
kaedah untuk mengawal pelbagai cabaran
yang mungkin muncul daripada persekitaran
sistem.
Teori Sistem Sibernetiks -- dikembangkan oleh
Norbert Wiener 1948 – 1954. Fokus kepada
penerangan bagaimana satu sistem berupaya
mencapai keseimbangan atau homeostasis
kerana kewujudan pelbagai komponen yang
saling berkait. Sistem Sibernertiks mementingkan
tindak balas dalam memastikan keupayaan untuk
berfungsi.
Teori Maklumat -- Teori yang
menekankan kepentingan maklumat
dalam organisasi. Pertukaran maklumat
merupakan keperluan kepada organisasi.
Teori Budaya Organisasi
Fokus terhadap apakah itu organisasi?
Apakah yang dipunyai oleh organisasi.
Empat komponen budaya kukuh:
1. Nilai
2. Wira (Heroes)
3. Upacara dan Amalan (Rituals)
4. Jaringan Budaya
Budaya Organisasi adalah kompleks
Budaya organisasi diterjemahkan menerusi
upacara, peraturan komunikasi, “cerita”,
kepercayaan, simbol.
Kemunculan Budaya Organisasi adalah hasil
interaksi ahli dalam organisasi. Walau
bagaimanapun tidak wujud satu Budaya
Organisasi yang unggul.
Budaya organisasi mempunyai kesan
terhadap bentuk dan struktur organisasi.
Menerusi kajian berbentuk deskriptif
pengkaji akan dapat memahami budaya
organisasi dan mengenali organisasi
tersebut.
Budaya penting terhadap mengarahkan
kejayaan organisasi.
Apakah dengan melihat
bangunan tersebut anda dapat
memahami budaya organisasi
tersebut?
Human
Resources
Approaches
PREVIEW
The classical approaches sees worker
as cogs in a machine that can be
easily replaced. The role of workers
in these theories is to provide
physical labor.
Classical manager would look at
employees with the perspective
“workers work”, the human relations
manager would look at employees
with the perspective “workers feel”
Human Resources Approach
Individuals in organizations
have feelings that must be
considered and also
recognize contributions
from employees: thoughts &
ideas.
Impetus for Human Resources
Approach
 Humanistic theories were developed to promote the
CONCERNS of the individual worker in an
atmosphere that was too focused on production
(FOCUS ON RELATIONAL & MAINTENANCE
FUNCTIONS)
 The Hawthorne studies --- springboard the move
from classical to human relations.
 Human relations approach states that higher-order
needs can be satisfied through job design,
management style, other organizational factors.
When the higher-order needs are satisfied,
employees should be happier. When employees are
happier, they should be more productive.
Principles of Human Relations
Theory
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Human relations theory is characterized by a shift in emphasis
from TASK to WORKER
Go beyond physical contributions to include creative, cognitive,
and emotional aspects of workers
Based on a more dyadic (two-way) conceptualization of
communication.
SOCIAL RELATIONSHIPS are at the heart of organizational
behavior--effectiveness is contingent on the social well-being of
workers
Workers communicate opinions, complaints, suggestions, and
feelings to increase satisfaction and production
Origins (Hawthorne Studies & work of Chester Barnard)
Human Relations School of Management - Elton Mayo
(Harvard
Origins of Human Relations Theory
 “The Hawthorne Studies
 Hawthorne Works of Western
Electric Company
 1924 - Chicago
 Research focus: Relation of
quality and quantity of
illumination to efficiency in
industry
 Four Important Studies
“The Hawthorne Studies”
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Illumination Study (November 1924)
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Relay Assembly Test Room Study (1927-1932)
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Assembly of telephone relays (35 parts - 4 machine screws)
Production and satisfaction increased regardless of IV manipulation
Workers’ increased production and satisfaction related to supervisory
practices
Human interrelationships are important contributing factors to worker
productivity
Bottom Line: Supervisory practices increase employee morale AND
productivity
Interviewing Program (1928-1930)
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Designed to test the effect of lighting intensity on worker productivity
Heuristic value: influence of human relations on work behavior
Investigate connection between supervisory practices and employee morale
Employees expressed their ideas and feelings (e.g., likes and dislikes)
Process more important than actual results
Bank Wiring Room Observation Study (November 1931 - May 1932)
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Social groups can influence production and individual work behavior
RQ: How is social control manifested on the shop floor?
Informal organization constrains employee behavior within formal
Hawthorne Studies - Implications
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Illumination Study (November 1924)
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Relay Assembly Test Room Study (1927-1932)
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Demonstrated powerful influence of upward communication
Workers were asked for opinions, told they mattered, and positive attitudes
toward company increased
Bank Wiring Room Observation Study (November 1931 - May 1932)
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Relationships between workers and their supervisors are powerful
Human interrelationships increase the amount and quality of worker
participation in decision making
Interviewing Program (1928-1930)
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The mere practice of observing people’s behavior tends to alter their
behavior (Hawthorne Effect)
Led future theorists to account for the existence of informal
communication
Taken together, these studies helped to document the powerful nature of
social relations in the workplace and moved managers more toward the
interpersonal aspects of organizing.
Hawthorne Studies - Criticisms
 Not conducted with the appropriate
scientific rigor necessary
 Too few subjects (N=5)
 No control groups
 Subjects replaced with more
“cooperative” participants
 WORTHLESS
 GROSS ERRORS
 INCOMPETENCE
Work
Factors
Satisfaction of
Higher-Order Needs
Job Satisfaction
Productivity
Flowchart of Human Relations Principles
However, years of research have
failed to support this. WHY?
Work
Factors
Satisfaction of
Higher-Order Needs
Job Satisfaction
Productivity
Flowchart of Human Relations Principles
Theory X and Theory Y: Douglas
McGregor
 Douglas McGregor (1906-1964)
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Articulated basic principles of human relations theory
The Human Side of Enterprise (1960, 1985)
To understand human behavior, one must discover the
theoretical assumptions upon which behavior is based
Especially interested in the behavior of managers
toward workers
“Every managerial act rests on assumptions,
generalizations, and hypotheses--that is to say, on
theory . . . Theory and practice are inseparable.”
Two Objectives:
 Predict and control behavior
 Tap Unrealized potential
Theory X - Classical Theory
Theory Y - Human Relations Theory
FOCUS: Manager’s assumptions about HUMAN NATURE
Theory X and Theory Y: Douglas
McGregor
 Theory X - Classical
Theory
 Three Assumptions
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The average human being has an
inherent dislike of work and will avoid it.
Most people must be coerced,
controlled, directed, and threatened
with punishment
The average human being prefers to be
directed, wishes to avoid responsibility,
has relatively little ambition, wants
security.
 Theory Y - Human Relations Theory
 Assumptions
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Physical and mental effort in work is similar to play /
rest.
External control and the threat of punishment are not
the only strategies
Commitment to objectives is a function of the rewards
associated with their achievement
The average human being learns, under proper
conditions, not only to accept but to seek
responsibility
The capacity to exercise a high degree of imagination,
ingenuity, and creativity in the solution of
organizational problems is widely distributed in the
population
Intellectual potentialities of the average human being
are underutilized
 A more positive perspective of human nature
 The KEY to control and quality production is
Theory Z
Developed by William Ouchi’s “Japanese
Management ” and was popularized
during the Asian economic boom in the
1980s.
For Ouchi, the theory focused on increasing
employee loyalty to the company by
providing a job for life with a strong focus
on the well-being of the employee both on
and off the job.
The theory promotes stable management,
high productivity and high employee
morale and satisfaction.
The theory was based Dr. W. Edwards
Deming’s “14 points.” His motivation
theories were rejected in the US and he
went to help Japanese business and
government leaders.
Theory Z suggested the special way to
managing style that focuses on a strong
company philosophy, a distinct corporate
culture, long-range staff development, and
consensus decision making.
Ouchi shows that - lower turn-over,
increased job commitment and
dramatically.
Professor Ouchi spent years researching Japanese
companies and examining American companies
using Theory Z management styles.
By 1980s, Japan was known for the highest
productivity anywhere in the world, while
America had fallen drastically. The word “Wa” in
Japanese can be applied to Theory Z because
they both deal with promoting partnerships and
group work.
The word “Wa” means a perfect circle or harmony,
which influences Japanese society to always be
in teams and to come to a solution together.
Promoting the word “Wa” is how the Japanese
economy became so powerful and also
because the Japanese show a high level
enthusiasm to work, some of the researchers
claim that “Z” in the Theory Z stands for “Zeal”.
Ouchi wrote a book “Theory Z How American
Business Can Meet the Japanese Challenge”
(1981).
American business can meet the Japanese
challenges with highly effective management
style that promises to transform business in the
1980s.
It can be done through a special way of managing
people.
“This is a managing style that focuses on a
strong company philosophy, a distinct
corporate culture, long-range staff
development and consensus decisionmaking.
Thus, it resulted in lower turn-over, increased
job commitment, and dramatically higher
productivity.
Ouchi took Japanese techniques and adapted to
the American corporate environment. Theory Z
also makes assumptions about workers. It
assumes that workers tend to want to build
happy and intimate working relationships with
those that they work for and with as well as the
people that work for them.
Theory Z workers have a high need to be supported
by the company, and highly value a working
environment in which family, cultures and
traditions and social institutions are regarded as
equally important as the work itself.
These types of workers have a very well developed
sense of order, discipline, a moral obligation to
work hard, and a sense of cohesion with their
fellow workers.
It is assumed that Theory Z workers can be
trusted to do their jobs to their utmost
ability so long as management can be
trusted to support them and look out for
their well being.
The theory assumes that workers will be
participating in the decisions of the
company to a great degree.
Management must have a high degree of
confidence in its workers in order for this
type of participative management to work.
Ouchi explains that the employees must be
very knowledgeable about the various
issues of the company as well as
possessing the competence to make
those decisions.
Theory Z also suggest that workers should be
generalists and not specialists and they need to
increase their knowledge of the company and
its processes through job rotations and constant
training.
However, promotions tend to be slower in this type
of setting, as workers are given longer
opportunity to receive training and more time to
learn the ins and outs of the company’s
operations.
The desire of the theory is to develop a work
force which has more of a loyalty towards
staying with the company for an entire
career and be more permanent than in
other types of settings.
It is expected that once they rise to the
position of a high level management they
will know more about the company and
how it operates.
With reference to the three Theories X, Y, Z
discuss its implications to the modern
organization that today include new
challenges and opportunities.
What are the challenges and the
opportunities of today’s organization ?
SUMMARY
 Humanistic Theories of Organizations
 Human Relations Theory
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The Hawthorne Studies
Chester Barnard
McGregor’s Theory X and Theory Y
 Human Resources Theory
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Likert’s Systems Theory (Four Systems of
Management)
Blake and Mouton’s (Blake and McCanse)
Managerial Grid
 The principles of human resources theory
attempt to integrate the concern for
production from classical theory with the
concern for the worker from human relations
Motivation and
Hygiene Factors
Frederick Herzberg
(1923 – 2000)
Herzberg’s Motivation-Hygiene
Theory
Focuses on outcomes that lead to higher
motivation and job satisfaction, and those
outcomes that can prevent dissatisfaction.
Motivator needs relate to the nature of the work
itself—autonomy, responsibility, interesting
work.
Hygiene needs are related to the physical and
psychological context of the work—comfortable
work environment, pay, job security.
Unsatisfied hygiene needs create dissatisfaction;
satisfaction of hygiene needs does not lead to
motivation or job satisfaction.
Two-factor Theory
(or Motivation-Hygiene Theory)
 Herzberg:
 Job context is source of dissatisfaction
 Problems with hygiene factors (e.g., pay,
working conditions) lead to dissatisfaction;
lack of problems means lack of dissatisfaction
 Job content is the source of job satisfaction
 Motivator factors (e.g., achievement,
responsibility) link with job performance; if
high, satisfaction high and performance strong
Two-factor Theory
(or Motivation-Hygiene Theory)
 Validity unconfirmed – not replicated using
different methods
 Still does not explain individual differences,
professional or cultural differences
Motivators and Hygiene Factors
 Frederick Herzberg theorized that two entirely
separate dimensions contribute to an
employee’s behavior at work—hygiene factors
and motivators.
 Hygiene factors are elements such as working
conditions, pay, policies, interpersonal relationships
 Motivators fulfill high-level needs and include
achievement, recognition, responsibility and
opportunity for growth
Motivators and Hygiene Factors
 Motivators satisfy subordinates–-the things
which encourage them to attend work, comply
to group or team goals, and produce.
 They often are linked to performance. Positive
recognition by a superior and among peers
during a formal meeting is an example of this.
Motivators and Hygiene Factors
 Hygiene factors keep subordinates from being
dissatisfied. They apply to subordinates regardless of
performance.
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
Timely and thorough completion of and counseling on fitness
evaluations are an example of a hygiene factor.
The act is expected. When it does not happen subordinates
become dissatisfied and may come to believe that superiors
are not taking care of them.
Satisfiers (motivators) and dissatisfiers (hygiene
factors) lie on completely different scales and must be
considered independently.
Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory
 KITA versus “true” motivation
 Short-term movement versus long-term motivation
 Job enrichment is an attempt to instill
an internal generator in the employee
 Studies of Herzberg’s theory have included
employees working in a variety of industries and
jobs
 Accountants, engineers, nurses, military officers,
and others
Hygiene Factors
 Work environment & target basic needs
 Range from dissatisfaction to no
dissatisfaction


The presence of hygiene cannot lead to
satisfaction or high levels of motivation
Perception that hygiene is an entitlement
Hygiene Factors (cont)
 Salary
 Can it ever be enough?
 Benefits
 Health care costs, premium sharing
 Company policy & administration
 Work conditions
 Office space, equipment, etc.
Motivator Factors
 Motivators
 Tap needs for psychological growth
 Job content: The work itself
 Lead to high levels of employee motivation
and satisfaction
Motivator Factors (cont)
 Examples




Recognition
Responsibility
Achievement
Growth and learning
Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory
Hygiene Factors
Motivator Factors
(lower order needs)
(higher order needs)
• Career Advancement
• Salary
• Company policies
• Working conditions
• Benefits
• Job security
High
Job Dissatisfaction
Prentice Hall, 2001
• Personal growth
• Recognition
• Responsibility
• Achievement
0
Chapter 6
Job Satisfaction
High
88
Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory
Hygiene Factor - work condition related to
dissatisfaction caused by discomfort or
pain
 maintenance factor
 contributes to employee’s feeling not
dissatisfied
 contributes to absence of complaints
Motivation Factor - work condition related
to the satisfaction of the need for
psychological growth
 job enrichment
 leads to superior performance & effort
Motivation–Hygiene
Theory of Motivation
• Company policy &
administration
• Supervision
• Interpersonal relations
• Working conditions
• Salary
• Status
• Security
Hygiene factors avoid
job dissatisfaction
Motivation factors
increase job satisfaction
•
•
•
•
•
•
Achievement
Achievement recognition
Work itself
Responsibility
Advancement
Growth
• Salary?
SOURCE: Adapted from Frederick Herzberg, The Managerial Choice: To be Efficient or to Be Human. (Salt Lake City: Olympus, 1982). Reprinted by permission.
Job Satisfaction
Job satisfaction = how positively or
negatively individuals feel about their jobs
 Observable informally through
observation and interpretation of
behaviour and words
 Measured formally in questionnaires
 E.g., Minnesota Satisfaction Questionnaire
 E.g., Job Descriptive Index
Effects of Job Satisfaction
 Link to absenteeism
 Satisfied have lower absenteeism
 Link to turnover
 Dissatisfied more likely to quit
 Link to performance complex
 Satisfaction is NOT good predictor of individual
performance
 Successful performance does seem to lead to
greater satisfaction
 Proper allocation of rewards can increase both
performance and satisfaction
Systems
Approaches
PREVIEW
Classical theorists – organizations
could be best understood by
comparing them to machines that
are predictable and full of
replaceable parts.
However, many theorists found this
metaphor as unsatisfying and
believed that organizations did
not behave in predictable and
machinelike ways.
A new metaphor
emerged -organizations as
complex organisms that
must interact with their
environment to survive.
Systems or organismic.
Organization theory has become a
kind of biology in which the
distinctions and relations among
molecules, cells, complex
organisms, species, and
ecology are paralleled in those
between individuals, groups,
organizations, populations
(species) of organizations and
their social ecology.
Systems approaches – consider
how an organismic metaphor
can provide insight into
organizational communication
processes.
A systems approach shifts our
attention to how we should study
behavior in an organization.
Three theoretical
concepts:
1.Cybernatics
2.Karl Weick’s theory of
organizing
3.“new science” systems
The systems Metaphor and
Systems
Concepts
1.
System Components
2. Hierarchical Ordering
3. Interdependence
4. Permeability
5. System Processes
6. System Properties
The origins of Systems
Systems theory originated
from the fields of
Theory
biology and engineering. Founded by
Ludwig von Bertalanffy, a theoretical
biologist who studied living systems. He
published, General Systems Theory
(1968) a book about systems theory that
he believed as appropriate for social
sciences.
Application of systems theory to
organizational
processes
The Social Psychology of Organizations -Katz and Kahn (1966)
Organizations in Action – Thompson
(1967)
Communicating and Organizing -- Farace,
Monge, and Russell (1977)
The Social Psychology of
Organizations – Katz and Kahn in
1966
“Organizations should be
conceptualized as complex open
systems that requires interaction
among component parts and
interaction with the environment to
survive” (Katz and Kahn (1978).
System Components
System is made up of parts or components.
In a biological system the parts = cells
and organs. In an organizational system,
these components are people and
departments, in society as a system,
organizations, institutions make up the
society.
Three concepts characterize
system components:
1.Hierarchical Ordering
2.Interdependence
3.Permeability
Hierarchical Ordering
System components are arranged in highly
complex ways that involve subsystems
and supersystems. E.g. human body
made up of cardiovascular system, the
digestive systems, etc and these systems
are made up of subsystems. E.g.
cardiovascular system includes heart,
lungs and blood vessels.
Organizational system
e.g. a hospital is made up of a
number of departmental
subsystems including surgical
units, recovery units, the
emergency room, etc. these
subsystems are composed of
smaller work groups and
individuals.
According to the classical theorists hierarchy
is the relatively straightforward lines of
authority represented by the
organizational chart. While the system
theorists refer to hierarchy as hierarchical
ordering within a system. It is how the
system is made up of smaller subsystems
and is embedded within a larger
supersystem.
Interdependence
The functioning of one component of a
system relying on other components of
the system. E.g. the brain needs a
constant supply of blood to function, the
heart relies on the lungs to bring in the
oxygen that fuels the blood. Both heart
and lungs rely on brain for neurological
signals that facilitate the functioning.
An organization as a system is also
interdependent. E.g. In our
hospital the surgical units
function effectively with the
assistance of laboratories to
provide test results. The lab.
depend on supplies department
for test tubes, etc.
Permeability
Permeable boundaries allow information and
materials to flow in and out. Some degree
of permeability is required to survive.
Permeability to the system (open to its
environment) and components within the
system. e.g. human body open to its
environment to take in air, food, water and
the human body must also be permeable
to allow the flow of materials among
organs and organs system.
System Processes
Systems are characterized by inputthroughput-output processes.
A system “inputs” materials or information
from the environment through its
permeable boundaries.
The system then works on these inputs with
some kind of transformational process –
“throughout”
The system returns the transformed “output”
to the environment.
e.g.
Furniture Factory chairs public
Raw materials
“input”
“throughput”
“output”
Two kinds processes:
1. Process of exchange -- input and output
require exchange processes with outside
environment.
Exchange processes related to permeable
boundaries. Some organizations have
high permeable boundaries to facilitate
change others may be relatively closed.
Feedback
Feedback – information that helps to facilitate
the interdependent functioning of system
components.
a) negative feedback, corrective feedback,
or deviation-reducing feedback.
b) Positive, growth, or deviation-amplifying
System Properties
Holism
Equifinality
Negative entropy
Requisite variety
Holism
Togetherness -- in a system there
is a need for interdependence.
Members need to cooperate to
ensure success of the system.
Instead of solving problems
individually, members of a
system should work it together.
Equifinality
The system property states that “a system
can reach the same final state from
differing initial conditions and by a variety
of paths” components of a system is
integrated in highly complex ways.
There are various ways to get to the end.
Negative
entropy
Ability to sustain and grow. An open system
that allow for the flow of information and
materials between the environment and
the system.
An open system engages in interchanges
with the environment and that interchange
is essential for the viability of the system.
Requisite
variety
Internal workings of a system must be as
diverse and complicated as the
environment in which it is embedded.
Needs for “matching complexity”
Such would allow for organization to be able
to deal with info and problems in the
environment.
Summary
Organization is a system made up of
collection of components that are
hierarchically arranged, interdependent,
and permeable to each other and the
environment.
The organizational system is characterized
by input– throughput – output processes.
Summary of Systems Basics
System Components
Principle
Hierarchically ordered
A system consists of smaller
subsytems and is embedded
within larger supersytems.
Interdependence
System components depend
on each other for effective
functioning.
Permeable
A system is open to its
environment and system
components are open to each
other.
Input-throughput-output
Processes
Principle
Exchange processes
Input and output processes
require exchange between the
system and the environment.
Throughput require exchange
among system components.
System control is maintained
through feedback. Corrective
(negative) feedback serves to
keep a system on a steady
course. Growth (positive)
feedback serves to transform or
change a system.
Feedback processes
System Properties
Principle
Holism
Because of component interdependence,
a system is more than sum of its part.
Equifinality
Because of component interdependence,
there are multiple paths to any system
outcome.
Negative entropy
Because of system openness, a system
has the ability to avoid deterioration and
thrive.
Requisite variety
Because of system openness, a system
should maintain the internal complexity
necessary to cope with external
complexity.
CULTURAL
APPROACHES
Classical approaches
conceptualize organizations
as machine.
System approaches look at
the organismic aspects of
organizational structure and
functioning.
Anthropological approaches
regarded organization from
the cultural perspectives.
What is Culture?
When you think of
Malaysia, what
comes to mind?
Values?
Cultural metaphor allow us to look at
organization as “What it is” i.e. its
qualities.
What makes McDonald’s different from
Burger King?
Pizza Hut different from Domino Pizza?
What makes UPM different from UKM?
What makes Maxis different from
Celcom?
Each organization has its own way of
doing what it does and its own way
of talking about what it is doing.
2 different perspective about culture
1.What an organization has
2.What an organization is
Prescriptive Views of Culture
Increasing interest to examine
organizational culture during the last
part of the 20th century.
The concept was accepted:
1. The cultural metaphor resonated with
both academics and practitioners.
2. Cultural metaphor open up new and
fruitful areas of research
Four components of a strong
culture:
1.Values
2.Heroes
3.Rites and rituals
4.Cultural network
Excellent Cultures
1. A Bias for Action – Excellent organization react quickly and do not spend
excess time planning and analyzing
2. Close Relations to the Customer – Excellent organizations gear decisions and
actions to the needs of customers.
3. Autonomy and Entrepreneurship – Excellent organizations encourage positive
and respectful relationships among management and employees.
4. Productivity through People – Excellent organizations encourage positive and
respectful relationships among management and employees.
5. Hands-On, Value-Driven – Excellent organizations have employees and
managers who share the same core value of productivity and performance
Excellent Cultures
6.Stick to the Knitting – Excellent
organizations stay focused on what they do
best and avoid radical diversification.
7.Simple Form, Lean Staff – Excellent
organizations avoid complex structures and
divisions of labor.
8.Simultaneous Loose-Tight Properties –
Excellent organizations exhibit both unity of
purpose and the diversity necessary for
innovation.
Success in the business world can be achieved
when employees hold on to strong culture.
Value engineering – effective cultural leaders
could create “strong” cultures, built around
their own values.
Weaknesses of prescriptive approaches:
1. There is no one single cultural formula that
can ensure organizational success.
2. Prescriptive approaches treat “culture” as
thing that an organization has.
Alternative Approaches to Culture
Culture is being seen as the emerging and sometimes fragmented values,
practices, narratives, and artifacts that make a particular organization “what
it is”
Louis (1980) stated that the approach seek to describe an organization’s unique
sense of place.”
Putnam (1983) introduced this interpretive approach requires a consideration of
“to the way individuals make sense of their world through their
communicative behaviors.”
Four elements distinguishing between prescriptive approaches to culture and
the approaches taken by most cultural scholars:
1. Culture is complicated
2. Culture is emergent
3. Culture is not unitary
4. Culture is often ambiguous
Organizational cultures are complicated
Beyer and Trice (1987) argue that an organization’s culture is revealed through its rites.
Rites of passage, rites of degradation, rites of enhancement, rites of renewal, rites of
conflict reduction, and rites of integration.
Dandridge (1986) looks at organizational ceremonies as indicators of culture.
Quinn and McGrath (1985) focus on the role of values and belief systems in the
transformation of organizational cultures.
Boje (1991) and Meyer (1995) contend that culture can best be revealed through stories
that organizational members tell.
Organizational cultures can be studied through rites, ceremonies, values, belief systems,
metaphors, stories, communication rules.
Schein’s Model of Organizational Culture
“Culture is a pattern of shared basic assumptions that the group learned as it
solved its problem of external adaptation and internal integration, that has
worked well enough to be considered valid, and therefore to be taught to new
members as the correct way to perceive, think and feel in relation to those
problems.”
A group phenomenon. An individual cannot have a culture.
Always striving towards patterning and integration.
A pattern of basic assumptions. Encompasses values,
behaviors, rules, and physical artifacts.
A learned or invented process.
Artifacts and Creations
A Model of Culture
Technology
Art
Visible and audible behavior
patterns
Visible but often
not decipherable
Values
Testable in the physical
environment
Testable only by social
consensus
Greater level of
awareness
Basic Assumptions
Relationship to environment
Nature of reality, time and
space
Nature of human nature
Nature of human activity
Nature of human relation
Taken for
granted
Invisible
Preconscious
Level 1: Behaviors & Artifacts
Relaxed, creative atmosphere
Bonuses given for new ideas
suggestion boxes throughout
office
Level 2: Values
Value for
innovation
Level 3:
Assumptions
“Change is good”
Describe the culture
of the organization
shown in the
pictures given
below.