Design & Technology
Industrial practices
There are four main types of industrial production - one-off,
batch, mass and continuous flow production - which have
progressively larger scales of operation. ICT is now important in
virtually every type of commercial design and production, with
different types of computer-control of design and making
processes grouped together as CADCAD: Computer Aided Design
- a system which helps the user produce accurate drawings. and
CAM.
The different production methods may have different design
requirements, but most commercial designers have three roles: a
functional [functional: relating to the performance of a product - its
'fitness for purpose' ] role, an aesthetic [aesthetic: relating to shape,
style, colour, pattern and other aspects of a product's visual appeal ]
role and an organisational role. Designers need to be aware of
the standards and conventions which regulate industrial design
practices.
Industrial production methods
There are four main types of industrial production methods:


One-off production is when only one product is made at a time.
As every product is different, one-off production is labour
intensive. Products may be made by hand or a combination of
hand and machine methods.
Batch production is when a small quantity of identical products
are made - from two up to about 100. Batch production may also
use a lot of labour, but jigs and templates are used to aid


production. Batches of the product can be made as often as
required. Often the machines can be easily changed to produce a
batch of a different product.
Mass or repetitive flow production is when hundreds of identical
products are made, usually on a production line. Mass production
often involves the assembly of a number of sub-assemblies of
individual components. Some parts may be bought from other
companies. There is usually some automation of tasks (eg by
using Computer Numerical Control [Computer Numerical
Control: the use of computers to control cutting and shaping
machines. CNC for short ] machines) and this enables a smaller
number of workers to ouput more products.
Continuous flow production is when many thousands of copies
of identical products are made. The difference between this and
mass production is that the production line is kept running 24
hours a day, seven days a week to maximise production and
eliminate the extra costs of starting and stopping the production
process. The process is highly automated and few workers are
required.
ICT in industry
Computer-aided design and making are nowadays commonplace in
industry. ICT is most often used in mass production, as computer
control makes it possible to produce many identical items very quickly.
But ICT is also useful in small batch and even one-off work, as
computer control also enables complicated shapes to be produced
more accurately than by hand.
The box summarises the many roles of ICT in industry:
 Data can be stored electronically and retrieved easily.
 Designs can be modelled on-screen and viewed from any angle.
 Reaction to outside forces, such as wind flow and pressure can be
modelled.
 Designs can be quickly altered.
 "Zoom" facilities can allow for the whole product or one detail to
be easily seen.
 Libraries of standard components can be stored electronically and
integrated into new designs.
 Control sequences can be simulated before working on the actual
material.
CNC (Computer Numerical Control) manufacturing is usually more
accurate.
You need to know and understand a number of terms used to
describe aspects of ICT in design and production. They are:
 CAD - Computer-aided design
 CAM - Computer-aided manufacturing
 CIM - Computer-integrated manufacturing
 FMS - Flexible manufacturing systems
 CNC - Computer numerical control
 PDM - Product data management
 CADMAT - Computer-aided design, manufacturing and testing

Industrial design
Different production methods - eg, one-off, batch, and mass or
continuous production - have somewhat different design
requirements, related to the differences between types of product,
client expectation, and the scale of operation. In particular there are
differences in the relationship between the designer and the client
[client: person or organisation that wants a product manufactured - eg
a retailer. ], who gives the designer his or her brief.
 In one-off [one-off: individual. Individual products may be made
by hand or a combination of hand and machine methods. As
every product is different, one-off production is labour intensive.
]production the designer is frequently the maker as well. The client
is usually the end-user of the product, and will have high
expectations about the quality of the product. The designer will
nearly always have a direct relationship with the client, so it is
essential that the designer is fully conversant with the end-user's
requirements.
 In batch [batch: production method for making a small quantity
(between two and about 100) identical products. ] production the
process of designing is more formalised, but the number of people
involved may still be quite small. The client may be the user, but is
more likely to be another company who sell the product. The
designer will not necessarily have any contact with the end-user of
the product.
 In mass [mass: production method for making hundreds of
identical products, usually on a production line. Also called
repetitive flow production. ] and continuous [continuous:
production method for making many thousands of identical
products. The difference between this and mass production is that
the production line is kept running 24 hours a day, seven days a
week. ] flow production the processes of designing and
manufacturing are much more formal. Making of changes can
become slower. There is little or no contact between the designer
and the client. The designer is therefore dependent on other
people feeding back the end-users' views.
The role of the designer
Commercial designers have a threefold role:
 A functional role, which involves making decisions about
function, purpose, materials, systems and control, and methods of
joining, constructing and finishing the product.
 An aesthetic [aesthetic: relating to shape, style, colour, pattern
and other aspects of a product's visual appeal ] role, which
involves making decisions on things like shape and form, colour,
texture, pattern, and decoration. And
 An organisational role - for example helping to source materials,
organise the manufacturing process, and make decisions about
the marketing [marketing: The activity of transferring goods from
producers to consumers - most commonly marketing is used to
refer to advertising. ] of the product.
Marketing and advertising
Marketing is about understanding the potential consumers of the
product: who are they, and what exactly do they want? Answering
these questions will usually involve doing market researchmarket
research: Market research is the gathering of data or information
concerning consumer opinions about a product or service.
Advertising is about telling people about a new or improved product,
and/or persuading them to buy it. Advertising can take many forms,
including:
 ads placed in newspapers and magazines
 posters on hoardings, buses, stations etc
 tv and radio commercials
 telephone advertising
 direct mail (ads sent out in the form of leaflets, mail shots, emails
and texts)
 online advertising
Laws and standards
Industrial design and manufacturing processes of products must
conform with the following laws [laws: formal rules adopted by
Parliament and enforced by government ] and standards [standards:
guidelines or specifications which are widely agreed and commonly
accepted, but do not necessarily have the force of law ], designed to
protect consumers from inferior, misleading or unsafe goods and
services:
 Fair Trading Act [Fair Trading Act: law which protects consumers
where the following are not acting in their interest: monopolies,
where businesses have 25 percent of the market, mergers, where
two companies plan to join together, and rogue traders, where the
Office of Fair Trading (OFT) will take action against persistent
offenders. In 2003 the Enterprise Act replaced the Fair Trading
Act. ]
 Consumer Protection Act [Consumer Protection Act: law which
protects the public by: prohibiting the manufacture and supply of
unsafe goods, making the maker or seller of defective products
pay for damage it causes and allows councils to seize or suspend
the sale unsafe goods. ]
 Trade Descriptions Act [Trade Descriptions Act: law which
makes it an offence for a trader to make false or misleading
statements about goods or services. The Act carries criminal
penalties and is enforced by local authorities' Trading Standards
Officers. ]
 Safety standards set by the British Standards Institute (BSI) and
the European Community (EC)
Drawing conventions
Conventions are ways of doing things - for example, technical
drawings - which conform to a common standard. Using conventions
saves time and ensures that a drawing means the same thing to
anyone who sees it. The BSI standard for drawings is BS8888.
When doing a drawing, you should always use the relevant
conventional symbols. The illustration below shows two drawings
conforming to BS8888 specifications.
BS8888 also sets out how measurements should be written down on
a drawing. It specifies that dimensions should be written outside the
drawing, with extension lines and dimension lines.
 Extension lines are parallel lines which extend out from two
points on the drawing between which a dimension needs to be
shown. (Remember to add a small break where the extension line
meets the drawing.)
 Dimension lines are drawn with an arrow on either end between
two extension lines, with the dimension written alongside. (Don't
forget to state the unit of measurement.)
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