Modern Sociologists continue to be inspired
by two important qualities stressed by early
Sociologists:
1. The focus on the social
2. Skepticism
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Robert K. Merton’s contributions to Sociology:
 Strain Theory
 Manifest & Latent Functions
 Dysfunctions
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Robert K. Merton was an American Sociologist.
He was said to have perfected the idea that
sociology is a science.
He was heavily influenced by Talcott Parsons
and elaborated on the Functionalist
perspective.
Robert Merton felt Durkheim’s anomie theory was too
vague and decided to modify it.
 He posited that anomie involves a disjunction
between legitimate goals (which everyone desires)
and socially approved means to success (which are not
equally available to all).
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Goals – car, house, vacation, good education
Means – work hard, study, save, sacrifice
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GOALS
GOALS
MEANS
MEANS
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Merton’s Deviance Typology
BEHAVIOUR
GOALS MEANS
Conformity


Innovation

X
Ritualism
X

Retreatism
X
X
new
new
Rebellion
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For Functionalists, like Merton, society was
made up of several functions and different
institutions and elements of the society had a
variety of purposes or meanings.
For Functionalists, everything that existed
had a reason for it to be there.
However, some of these functions were easy
to see or obvious (manifest) whereas others
were unintended or hidden (latent).
FUNCTION
MANIFEST
LATENT
NATURE
INTENDED, OBVIOUS
UNINTENDED, HIDDEN
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In each institution there are manifest (intended)
and latent (hidden) functions.
Note that ALL functions are positive.
INSTITUTION
FAMILY
EDUCATION
RELIGION
LEGAL SYSTEM
GOVERNMENT
MANIFEST
FUNCTION
LATENT
FUNCTION
To provide basic To ensure mankind’s
needs & wants
survival
To
pass
on To provide meals or
knowledge
day care
To provide hope in
times of need
To protect the people
and to serve justice
To serve the people
To keep their religion
alive
To produce more
knowledgeable
criminals
To remain in power

Latent & manifest functions are not found
only in institutions, but in everyday activities.
INSTITUTION
MANIFEST
FUNCTION
LATENT
FUNCTION
Mother’s / Father’s
Day
To express love to
that special someone
To express gratitude
to one’s parents
Carrying a briefcase
To carry one’s stuff
To boost flowers
sales
To help greeting card
companies
boost
sales during months
when there may be
nothing to celebrate
To
indicate
occupational status
(non-manual labour)
Valentines Day


A dysfunction could be described as a
malfunction or abnormal or impaired
functioning (i.e. – it is not working as it
should)
Dysfunctions can be manifest or latent.


Manifest
dysfunctions
are
anticipated
disruptions of social life. For example, a manifest
dysfunction of a Carnival fetes or concert might
include disruptions of transportation and
excessive production of garbage.
Latent dysfunctions are unintended and
unanticipated disruptions of order and stability.
In the same fete or concert example, they would
be represented by people missing work due to
the traffic jam.

C. Wright Mills’ contribution to Sociology:
 Sociological Imagination

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C. Wright Mills argued that sociologists see
patterns and trends that escape the notice of
other observers.
This goes against the individualism that we
have been taught as a youth.
Sociologists posit that although individuals
are unique, they are not isolated in this world
and whatever they do have implications on
the society around them and were influenced
by the society around them.

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Therefore, for Mills, individuals become
hardly noticeable in the whole scheme of
things since they are treated as extensions of
their family, religion, school, race, gender,
culture and so on.
Even
personal
accomplishments
are
influenced by social factors.

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More generally, sociologists understand that
individual make choices about how they will
act, that they do have “free will,” but
sociologists know that it is the social
environment that makes some choices easier
and others harder.
For Johnson (in McIntyre 2006, 30), an
individualistic model is misleading because it
encourages us to explain human behaviour
and experience from a perspective that’s so
narrow it misses most of what is going on.
Mills coined the term “Sociological Imagination”
He argued that in order to explain social
phenomena, individuals should apply a
combination of personal as well as social &
historical forces.
 Mills purported that it is the ability “to think
sociologically.”
 McIntyre (2006, 265) defined it as “a kind of
outlook on the world which allows one to look
beyond the circumstances of the individual and
see the effects of larger historical and social
forces.”

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Mills postulated that people in our society
often feel helpless and justly so.
He argues that when people are experiencing
problems, they often blame individualistic
reasons, but in reality these problems are
generally as a result of social forces.
For example, a 15-year marriage that has
gone sour.

The Sociological Imagination could therefore
help others to solve problems because people
can now understand the source of their
problems.
Example of Social Inequality (Racism):
 Many people argue that racial discrimination
is not merely a matter of individuals being
nasty to one another.
 Rather racism is as a result of factors built
into social systems (institutional racism).
 Individuals may be locked into a pattern of
racism without even being aware of it or
resisting it.
 Examples: racist policies of an educational
institute or bank.

McIntyre, Lisa. 2006. The Practical Skeptic:
Core Concepts in Sociology. 3rd Ed. New
York, NY: Mc Graw Hill.
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