A process based on experience that
results in a relatively permanent
change in behavior or behavioral
potential.
Examples: Riding a bike; Using
chopsticks; reading; sleeping in a bed
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Ivan Pavlov
Russia
What is learning?
Classical Conditioning: A
learning process in which
associations are made
between a natural stimulus
and a neutral stimulus.
Pavlov’s dog . . .
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Pavlov began his experiments
by ringing a tuning fork and
then immediately placing
some meat powder on the
dogs tongue. He chose the
tuning fork because it was a
neutral stimulus.
Neutral Stimulus: A stimulus
that does not initially elicit
any part of the unconditioned
response.
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After a few times the dog begins to
salivate by merely hearing the
sound, even if there was no food
within it’s sight.
Pavlov demonstrated that a
neutral stimulus (here, the tuning
fork) can cause a formerly
unrelated response.
This occurs if it is presented
regularly just before the stimulus
(here, the food) that normally
brings about a response (here,
salivation.)
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According to Pavlov, every human or animal
has a set of unconditional or involuntary
responses.
Such responses include blushing, shivering,
being startled, and salivating.
In this experiment, food was the unconditional
stimulus.
Unconditional Stimulus (UCS): An event that
elicits a certain predictable response typically
without previous training.
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A few other important things:
Unconditioned Response (UCR): An
organism’s automatic (or neutral) reaction to
a stimulus. (Example = salivation).
Under normal conditions, the sound of a
tuning fork would not cause salivation. The
dog had to be taught, or conditioned to
associate this sound with food.
An ordinarily neutral event that, after
training, leads to a response such as
salivation is termed a conditioned stimulus.
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Conditioned Stimulus (CS): A once-neutral
event that elicits a given response after a period
of training in which it has been paired with an
unconditioned stimulus.
The salivation that is caused by the tuning fork
is called a conditioned response.
Conditioned Response (CR): The learned
reaction to a conditioned stimulus.
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A classically conditioned
response, like any other
behavior, is subject to change.
Pavlov discovered that if he
stopped presenting food after
the sound of the tuning fork, the
sound gradually lost its effect on
the dog.
After he repeatedly struck the
tuning fork without giving food,
the dog no longer associated the
sound with the arrival of food –
the sound of the tuning fork no
longer caused the salivation
response.
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Pavlov called this effect extinction!
Extinction: The gradual disappearance of a
conditioned response when the conditioned
stimulus is repeatedly presented without the
unconditioned stimulus.
Yet, even though the conditioned response has
been extinguished, it does not mean that the
CR has been completely unlearned.
Spontaneous Recovery!
You eventually see the object again and get a
response…
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1st Step
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Volunteers?
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Shaping activity.
What is Shaping?
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Shaping- reinforcement of behaviors that are
increasingly similar to the one that you want to
occur.
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What is Operant Conditioning?
Ok, so, suppose you have a dog.
Your dog is wandering around the
neighborhood, sniffing trees, checking
garbage cans, and looking for a squirrel to
chase.
A kind neighbor sees the dog and tosses a
bone out of the kitchen door to it.
The next day the dog is likely to stop at the
same door on it’s rounds. Once again your
neighbor produces another bone, so the dog
becomes a regular visitor!
Why?
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The reason why is called, operant
conditioning.
Operant Conditioning: Learning
in which a certain action is
reinforced or punished, resulting
in corresponding increases and
decreases in occurrence.
Operant = operates due to a
change .
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Edward Thorndike = Law of Effect –
learning from the consequences of our
behavior – reward for good punish for bad
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B.F. Skinner = new ideas to OC –
Reinforcement; behavior which is
reinforced tends to be repeated (i.e.
strengthened); behavior which is not
reinforced tends to vanish (i.e. weakened)
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Every time someone flushes a toilet in the
apartment building, the shower becomes very
hot and causes the person to jump back. Over
time, the person begins to jump back
automatically after hearing the flush, before the
water temperature changes.
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Your father gives you a credit card at the end
of your first year in college because you did so
well. As a result, your grades continue to get
better in your second year.
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Your car has a red, flashing light that blinks
annoyingly if you start the car without
buckling the seat belt. You become less likely to
start the car without buckling the seat belt.
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You eat a new food and then get sick because
of the flu. However, you develop a dislike for
the food and feel nauseated whenever you
smell it.
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Positive Reinforcement
Negative Reinforcement
Positive Punishment
Negative Punishment
Try to frame your thinking like this:
Reinforcement=Desirable
Punishment=NOT desirable
Positive=to add
Negative=to take away
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Anything that increases the likelihood of a
behavior by following it with a desirable
event or state
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Increasing the strength of a given response
by removing or preventing a painful
stimulus when the response occurs.
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In the case of positive punishment, it
involves presenting an unfavorable outcome
or event following an undesirable behavior.
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Involves taking something good or desirable
away in order to reduce the occurrence of a
particular behavior.
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Get into preselected groups
Follow the instructions on the sheet
Be prepared to share at least one with the class.
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Discrimination-the ability to distinguish among
similar signals or stimuli.
Extinction- loss of a learned response when a
consequence no longer follows it.
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Continuous reinforcement- Vending machine approach
Fixed-Ratio Schedule: A pattern of reinforcement in
which a specific number of correct responses is
required before reinforcement can be obtained.
Variable-Ratio Schedule: A pattern of reinforcement in
which an unpredictable number of responses are
required before reinforcement can be obtained.
Fixed-Interval Schedule: A pattern of reinforcement in
which a specific amount of time must elapse before a
response will elicit reinforcement.
Variable-Interval Schedule: A pattern of reinforcement
in which changing amounts of time must elapse before
a response will obtain reinforcement.
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Cognitive Learning focuses on how
information is obtained, processed, and
organized. Such learning is concerned with the
mental process involved in learning. Latent
Learning and Learned Helplessness are
examples of cognitive learning.
Cognitive Learning: Form of altering behavior
that involves mental processes and may result
from observation or imitation.
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Examples:
1. Latent Learning. Latent learning is not
demonstrated by an immediately observable
change in behavior at the time of the learning.
Although the learning typically occurs in the
absence of a reinforcer, it may not be demonstrated
until the reinforcer appears.
 Example: Have you ever had to locate a building or a street
in a section of Durham that you are unfamiliar with? You
may have been through that section of town before and
remember details such as an unusual sign or building.
Remembering these details may have helped you find the
building or street you were looking for. In other words, you
learned some details you were not intending to.
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Examples:
2. Learned Helplessness. Learned helplessness
is a condition in which repeated attempts to
control a situation fail, resulting in the belief
that the situation is uncontrollable.
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Example: You do poorly on a math test the first time
you try and decide it was because you had not
studied enough. The next test, you do poorly again
and decide it was because you did not feel well. On
the third test, you once again score poorly…You give
up and decide that you “are just dumb,” giving up
on math.
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Modeling!
Modeling: Learning by
imitating others; copying
behavior!
This is how the majority of
people learn how to act in new
situations (sports, concerts, etc.)
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The term “behavior modification” often
appears in magazine articles describing
research on changing people’s behavior
through drugs, “mind control,” or even brain
surgery.
In fact, it is none of these things.
Behavior Modification: Refers to the
systematic application of learning principles to
change people’s actions and feelings.
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Example: Giving your little brother a quarter to go
away!
Definition = The process of
learning new responses by
watching the behavior of another
 The process of acquiring
information by observing others
 Example: Learning to tie your
shoe by observing someone else
perform the task
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 Albert
Bandura =
1. People can learn through
observation
2. Mental states are important to
learning (awareness)
3. Learning does not necessarily
lead to a change in behavior
 Albert
Bandura =
The Modeling Process
1.) Attention: In order to learn, you need
to be paying attention.
2.) Retention: ability to store the
information
3.) Reproduction: actually performing the
behavior you observed
4.) Motivation: for learning to be
successful, one has to be motivated to act
upon the behavior. Reinforcement and
punishment can help focus learners