TEN STEPS to
BUILDING COLLEGE READING SKILLS
FIFTH EDITION
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FIFTH EDITION
TEN STEPS
to
BUILDING COLLEGE
READING SKILLS
John Langan
© 2011 Townsend Press
This Chapter in a Nutshell
In this chapter, you will learn about three other types of relationships:
• Relationships that involve illustration
— Typical illustration transitions are for example and for
instance
• Relationships that involve comparison and/or contrast
— Typical comparison transitions are alike and similar.
— Typical contrast transitions are but and however.
• Relationships that involve cause and effect
— Typical cause-effect transitions are reasons, because,
and
therefore.
CHAPTER 7 Relationships II
This Chapter in a Nutshell
In this chapter, you will learn about relationships
involving illustration, comparison, contrast, and
cause and effect.
CHAPTER 7 Relationships II
1 Illustration
Words That Show Illustration
Which item below is easier to read and understand?
A. Anyone can become a safer driver. Do not talk or send
text messages on your cellphone.
B. Anyone can become a safer driver. For instance, do not
talk or send text messages on your cellphone.
CHAPTER 7 Relationships II
1 Illustration
Words That Show Illustration
Which item below is easier to read and understand?
A. Anyone can become a safer driver. Do not talk or send
text messages on your cellphone.
B. Anyone can become a safer driver. For instance, do not
talk or send text messages on your cellphone.
The second item is easier to understand. The words For instance make it
clear that not talking or sending text messages on a cellphone is one way
to be a safer driver.
CHAPTER 7 Relationships II
1 Illustration / Words That Show Illustration
For instance and other words and phrases like it are
illustration words.
B. Anyone can become a safer driver. For instance, do not
talk or send text messages on your cellphone.
CHAPTER 7 Relationships II
1 Illustration / Words That Show Illustration
Illustration words tell us that an author will
provide one or more examples to clarify a given
idea.
CHAPTER 7 Relationships II
1 Illustration / Words That Show Illustration
In the cartoon above, the man gives his doctor one example
of how he tries to limit what he eats—having only one
dessert!
CHAPTER 7 Relationships II
1 Illustration / Words That Show Illustration
Here are some common words that show illustration:
Illustration Words
Examples
• Some birds, such as the penguin and the ostrich,
cannot fly.
• People came to America for many reasons. The
Puritans, for example, arrived in 1620 seeking
freedom.
• religious
My mother’s
love of chocolate has led to some pretty
weird combinations. Once she put Hershey’s syrup
on a cheese sandwich.
CHAPTER 7 Relationships II
1 Illustration
The Definition and Example Pattern
The definition and example pattern of
organization includes just what its name suggests:
a definition and one or more examples.
CHAPTER 7 Relationships II
1 Illustration / The Definition and Example Pattern
See if you can arrange the following sentences in an order that makes sense.
Which sentence should come first? Second? Third?
A. When acupuncture is used to kill pain, needles are inserted
far from the area of pain.
B. Acupuncture is a Chinese medical technique that involves
inserting special needles in certain places in the body.
C. In one stomach operation, for instance, four needles in the
patient’s outer ears eliminated pain.
CHAPTER 7 Relationships II
1 Illustration / The Definition and Example Pattern
The sentences should read as follows:
Definition
Explanation
Example
Acupuncture is a Chinese medical technique that involves
inserting special needles in certain places in the body. When
acupuncture is used to kill pain, needles are inserted far from the
area of pain. In one stomach operation, for instance, four
needles in the patient’s outer ears eliminated pain.
This paragraph begins with a definition of acupuncture.
The second sentence further explains acupuncture by
discussing a special use. Finally, an example of the use of
acupuncture for pain is given. The third sentence includes
the illustration words for instance.
CHAPTER 7 Relationships II
1 Illustration / The Definition and Example Pattern
An important study hint:
Textbook authors often take time, then, to include key
definitions. These ideas and terms are usually set off in italic
or boldface type, and the definitions are signaled by such
words as is, are, is called, termed, and refers to.
Examples of Definitions in Textbooks
• A placebo is a “sugar pill” without any significant medical
properties.
• Hypotheses are predictions stated in a way that allows
them to be tested.
• A low sense of personal worth is what psychologists call
negative self- esteem.
CHAPTER 7 Relationships II
2 Comparison and Contrast
Words That Show Comparison
Which item below is easier to read and understand?
A. Human infants suck their thumbs; baby elephants suck
their trunks.
B. Just as human infants suck their thumbs, baby
elephants suck their trunks.
CHAPTER 7 Relationships II
2 Comparison and Contrast
Words That Show Comparison
Which item below is easier to read and understand?
A. Human infants suck their thumbs; baby elephants suck
their trunks.
B. Just as human infants suck their thumbs, baby
elephants suck their trunks.
The first item makes us wonder what the author is focusing on—how
human infants and baby elephants are alike or how they are different.
The words just as in the second version show the author is focusing on
the similarity.
CHAPTER 7 Relationships II
2 Comparison and Contrast / Words That Show Comparison
Just as and words like them are comparison words.
B. Just as human infants suck their thumbs, baby
elephants suck their trunks.
CHAPTER 7 Relationships II
2 Comparison and Contrast / Words That Show Comparison
Comparison words signal similarities. Authors use
a comparison transition to show that a second idea
is like the first one in some way.
CHAPTER 7 Relationships II
2 Comparison and Contrast / Words That Show Comparison
In the above cartoon, the words resemble and both show the
dog is making a comparison between himself and the man.
The dog names three ways he and the man are similar: both
of them eat anything, sleep on the furniture, and are
overweight.
CHAPTER 7 Relationships II
2 Comparison and Contrast / Words That Show Comparison
Here are some common words that show comparison:
Comparison Words
Examples
• The carpet was so old and faded it looked like a gray
shadow.
• Parents today often dislike the music their children
listen to, just as their own parents disliked the Beatles
or the Rolling Stones.
• Tattoos, which used to be seen as lower class, are
part of our culture today. Likewise, many middle-class
people now have body piercings.
CHAPTER 7 Relationships II
2 Comparison and Contrast
Words That Show Contrast
Which item below is easier to understand?
A. The weather in Florida is usually wonderful, but the
summers are hot and humid.
B. The weather in Florida is usually wonderful. The
summers are hot and humid.
CHAPTER 7 Relationships II
2 Comparison and Contrast
Words That Show Contrast
Which item below is easier to understand?
A. The weather in Florida is usually wonderful, but the
summers are hot and humid.
B. The weather in Florida is usually wonderful. The
summers are hot and humid.
In the second item, we’re not sure if the author feels that the weather in
Florida is wonderful because of or in spite of the hot and humid
summers. The transition but in the first item makes the relationship
clear: the weather in Florida is wonderful in spite of the summer heat
and humidity.
CHAPTER 7 Relationships II
2 Comparison and Contrast / Words That Show Contrast
But and words like it are known as contrast words.
A. The weather in Florida is usually wonderful, but the
summers are hot and humid.
CHAPTER 7 Relationships II
2 Comparison and Contrast / Words That Show Contrast
Contrast words signal differences. A contrast
word shows that two things differ in one or more
ways. Contrast words also inform us that
something is going to differ from what we might
expect.
CHAPTER 7 Relationships II
2 Comparison and Contrast / Words That Show Contrast
In the cartoon above, the woman uses the word difference to
contrast what her husband likes to do at meals (read) with
what she likes to do (talk).
CHAPTER 7 Relationships II
2 Comparison and Contrast / Words That Show Contrast
Here are some common words that show contrast:
Contrast Words
Examples
• Although the movie had an exciting plot, the actors in
the lead roles were not very convincing.
• A laptop computer is convenient and portable; on the
other hand, a desktop computer is usually less
• expensive.
Only 10 percent of the population is left-handed. In
contrast, of babies that are born more than two
months prematurely, 54 percent are left-handed.
CHAPTER 7 Relationships II
2 Comparison and Contrast
The Comparison-Contrast Pattern
The comparison-contrast pattern shows how two
things are alike or how they are different, or both.
CHAPTER 7 Relationships II
2 Comparison and Contrast
The Comparison-Contrast Pattern
When things are
compared, their similarities
are pointed out.
When things are
contrasted, their
differences are
discussed.
CHAPTER 7 Relationships II
2 Comparison and Contrast / The Comparison-Contrast Pattern
See if you can arrange the following sentences in an order that makes sense.
Which sentence should come first? Second? Third?
A. The snakes have similar markings: red, yellow, and black
bands.
B. The coral snake and the milk snake may look alike, but
there’s an important difference between them.
C. However, the milk snake is harmless, while the coral snake is
very poisonous.
CHAPTER 7 Relationships II
2 Comparison and Contrast / The Comparison-Contrast Pattern
The sentences should read as follows:
Main idea
The coral snake and the milk snake may look alike, but
there’s an important difference between them. The snakes have
similar markings: red, yellow, and black bands. However, the
milk snake is harmless, while the coral snake is very poisonous.
The first sentence of this paragraph is the general one, the
one with the main idea. The words alike, but, and difference
suggest a comparison-contrast pattern. As the comparison
word similar and the contrast words however and while
suggest, the other two sentences do in fact compare and
contrast two things.
CHAPTER 7 Relationships II
3 Cause and Effect
Words That Show Cause and Effect
Which item below is easier to understand?
A. Nina cares for her elderly parents. She has very little
free time.
B. Because Nina cares for her elderly parents, she has very
little free time.
CHAPTER 7 Relationships II
3 Cause and Effect
Words That Show Cause and Effect
Which item below is easier to understand?
A. Nina cares for her elderly parents. She has very little
free time.
B. Because Nina cares for her elderly parents, she has very
little free time.
In the first item, we are not sure of the relationship between the two
sentences. Does Nina have little free time with which to care for her
parents? Or does she have little free time because she cares for her
parents? The word because in the second item shows the connection
between the two ideas.
CHAPTER 7 Relationships II
3 Cause and Effect / Words That Show Cause and Effect
Because and words like it are known as cause and
effect words.
B. Because Nina cares for her elderly parents, she has very
little free time.
CHAPTER 7 Relationships II
3 Cause and Effect / Words That Show Cause and Effect
Cause and effect words signal that the author
is explaining the reason why something
happened or the result of something happening.
CHAPTER 7 Relationships II
3 Cause and Effect / Words That Show Cause and Effect
Effect
Cause
In the cartoon above, the dog explains that dressing for
success (the cause) has led to his promotion (the effect).
CHAPTER 7 Relationships II
3 Cause and Effect / Words That Show Cause and Effect
Here are some common cause and effect words:
Cause and Effect Words
Examples
• People eat fewer hamburgers today than they did in
the past. Therefore, fast-food restaurants have
developed new items for their menus.
• Because roses are considered the flowers of
romance, many people give them for Valentine’s Day.
• Digital cameras do not require the use of film; as a
result, they have become more popular than
conventional cameras.
CHAPTER 7 Relationships II
3 Cause and Effect
The Cause and Effect Pattern
Information in a cause and effect pattern
addresses the questions:
“Why does a behavior
or event happen?”
and/or
“What are the results
of a behavior or
event?”
CHAPTER 7 Relationships II
3 Cause and Effect / The Cause and Effect Pattern
See if you can arrange the following sentences in an order that makes sense.
Which sentence should come first? Second? Third?
A. Accidents are also caused by speeding, as drivers try to get
home as quickly as possible.
B. Traffic accidents are more likely to result during evening rush
hour.
C. Because drivers are tired at the end of the day, they are not
able to respond quickly enough to changes in traffic.
CHAPTER 7 Relationships II
3 Cause and Effect / The Cause and Effect Pattern
The sentences should read as follows:
Effect
Cause 1
Cause 2
Traffic accidents are more likely to result during evening rush
hour. Because drivers are tired at the end of the day, they are not able
to respond quickly enough to changes in traffic. Accidents are also
caused by speeding, as drivers try to get home as quickly as possible.
As the words result, Because, and caused suggest, this
paragraph is organized in a cause and effect pattern.
The paragraph begins with an effect—that more accidents
occur during rush hour. It then discusses two causes.
CHAPTER 7 Relationships II
A Final Point
A paragraph or a longer passage sometimes
contains more than one pattern of organization.
CHAPTER 7 Relationships II
A Final Point
A Paragraph with Two Patterns of Organization
People with more wealth tend to have more power. This fact is
apparent in the domination of top government positions by the wealthy.
Higher-income persons are also more likely to feel a strong sense of power.
As a result, they are more likely to be politically active, working to keep or
increase their power. In contrast, lower-income people are more likely to
feel powerless to influence major political decisions. Therefore, they are
more indifferent to politics and less likely to be involved in political activity.
The paragraph partly uses a contrast pattern, noting the difference
between higher-income people and lower-income people with regard to
political activity.
But it also uses a cause-effect pattern: it describes the effect of feeling a
sense of power or feeling no sense of power.
CHAPTER 7 Relationships II
(Continues on next slide)
CHAPTER 7 Relationships II
Chapter Review