Agriculture
Chapter 10
Origins Of Agriculture

Agriculture- deliberate modification of
Earth’s surface through cultivation of plants
and rearing of animals to obtain sustenance
or economic gain
–
–

Cultivate-to care for
Crop-any plant cultivated by people
Agriculture began when humans first
domesticated plants and animals for their
use
Hunters and Gatherers




Small familial groups of 50 or less who
survived by gathering plants and hunting wild
animals
Most of time used to search for food
Lived nomadic lifestyle with few possessions
Approx. 250million people sill live this way
–
Isolated areas of the Arctic, the interior of Africa,
Australia, and South America
Invention of Agriculture


Plant cultivation most likely evolved from a
combination of accidental and deliberate
experiments
Carl Sauer theorizes there are 2 types of cultivation
1.
2.
Vegetative agriculture- reproduction of plants by direct
cloning from existing plants, such as cutting stems and
dividing roots (earliest form)
Seed agriculture- reproduction of plants through annual
planting of seeds that result from sexual fertilization
Location of Agricultural Hearths


Agriculture has multiple, independent points
of origin
Sauer believes vegetative planting originated
in SE Asia
–
–
Climate and topography encouraged wide variety
of plants suitable for dividing and transplanting
People relied on fishing which made them more
sedentary—more time to devote to plants
continued



Crops probably included roots such as taro
and yam, and tree crops such as the banana
and palm
Animals probably included the dog, pig, and
chicken
Other early vegetative planting hearths were
in West Africa and northwestern South
America
Location of First Seed Agriculture


Sauer identified 3 seed agricultural hearths in the
Eastern hemisphere (western India, northern China,
and Ethiopia) and 2 in the Western hemisphere
(southern Mexico and northern Peru)
The western India hearth diffused quickly into
southwest Asia– where wheat and barley were first
domesticated
–
Also first to integrate domestication of herd animals such as
sheep, cattle and goats
continued




Mexico was the point of origin for squash and maize
Beans and cotton may have originated in Peru
Diffusion occurred from these two hearths, but
agriculture was not widespread until the arrival of the
Europeans
The only domesticated animals were the llama,
alpaca, and turkey before the arrival of the
Europeans
Classifying Agricultural Regions


The most fundamental differences in
agricultural practices are between those in
LDCs and MDCs
LDCs practice subsistence agriculture


Production of food primarily for consumption by the
farmer’s family
MDCs practice commercial agriculture

Production of food for sale
Differences Between Subsistence and
Commercial Agriculture

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Five principal features distinguish
commercial agriculture from subsistence
agriculture
Purpose of farming
% of farmers in the labor force
Use of machinery
Farm size
Relationship of farming to other businesses
Purpose of Farming



For own consumption
Little surplus might be
sold
Might not be any
surplus because of
growing conditions


Products grown for sale
Sold to food-processing
companies such as
General Mills or Kraft
% of Farmers in the Labor Force

More than 50%
involved in agriculture



Less than 10%
employed in farming
Only 2% in US and
Canada, yet still
produce a large surplus
to sell internationally
# of farmers declined
drastically during 20th
century
Use of Machinery

Most work is done with hand
tools and animals



Use of machinery allows a
small # of farmers to feed
many people
Transportation
improvements such as
railroads and highways get
fresh products out quickly
Scientific advances also
used to increase
productivity– fertilizers,
herbicides, hybrid plants,
and animal breeding
Farm Size




Farm size is relatively large
esp. in US and Canada–
avg. 444 acres
98% are still family owned in
US
The biggest 1.4% of US
farms account for 48% of all
agricultural sells they
average 3000 acres
About half of all US farms
generate less than $5000 a
year in sales (about 100
acres on average)
continued


Large size is a consequence of
mechanization
Machines work more efficiently on large plots
of land and they are also too expensive to
justify on small farms
continued



US is losing about 1.2 million acres of
farmland per year of its 1 billion acres of
farmland
Prime agricultural land- most productive
farmland—alarming problem
Decreasing in US because of urban sprawl
Relationship of Farming to Other
Businesses


Commercial farming is closely tied to other
businesses
Agribusiness-commercial agriculture char. by
integration of different steps in the food-processing
industry, usually through ownership by large
corporations
–
farmers are less than 2% of US workforce, but 20% of labor
force works in food production and other services related to
agribusiness such as fertilizer production, tractor
manufacturing, etc.
Mapping Agricultural Regions

Derwent Whittlesey (1936)identified 11 main
agricultural regions plus an area of
nonexistent agriculture
–
–
Subdivided between 5 regions that are important
in LDCs and six that are important in MDCs
Used climate to sort agricultural practices

Influences crops that are grown and if animals are
raised instead of growing crops
continued

The correlation b/w agriculture and climate is
not perfect, but it definitely exists
–

Geographers warn not to put too much emphasis
on climate because of environmental determinism
Cultural preferences explain some
agricultural differences in areas of similar
climate
–
Ex. No hogs in Muslim areas
Agricultural Characteristics of LDCs

1.
2.
3.
4.
There are 4 agricultural types characteristic
of LDCs
Shifting Cultivation
Pastoral Nomadism
Intensive Subsistence Agriculture
Plantation Farming
Shifting Cultivation



Practiced in much of the world’s Humid LowLatitude, or A, climate regions, which have relatively
high temperatures and abundant rainfall
Prevalent in the Amazon are of SA, Central and
West Africa, and SE Asia
Def- a form of subsistence agriculture in which
people shift activity from one field to another; each
field is used for crops for a relatively few years and
left fallow for a relatively long time
Characteristics of Shifting Agriculture
1.
2.

Slash-and-burn agriculture
Fields are used until the nutrients are
depleted then they are left fallow for many
years so the soil can recover
People who practice usually live in small
villages and grow food on surrounding land,
which the village controls
The Process of Shifting Cultivation


Trees removed, undergrowth cleared and
burned, ashes soak into the soil with rain to
provide nutrients
Cleared land called by many names such as:
–
–
–
–
–
Swidden
Ladang
Milpa
Chena
kaingin
continued


Fields are prepared by hand with simple tools such
as hoes—plows and animals are rarely used
Land is usually only good for three years before all
the nutrients are used
–


The second year after burning usually brings the best
harvest
When the swidden is no longer fertile, a new area is
prepared
The old field will be left to nature for a period of 6 to
20 years before it is used again
Crops of Shifting Cultivation


Predominately upland rice in SE Asia, maize
and manioc (cassava) in South America, and
millet and sorghum in Africa
Yams, sugarcane, plantain, and vegetables
are also grown in some regions
Ownership and Use of Land In Shifting
Cultivation



Land usually owned by the village and the
chief or ruling council assigns individual
patches to families
Private individuals do own the land in some
places, especially in Latin America
About ¼ of World’s land area is used for
shifting cultivation
continued
Future of Shifting Agriculture



Land used for shifting cultivation is declining
by about 30,000 sq. miles per year
Being replaced by logging, cattle ranching,
and cultivation of cash crops
Leads to a lot of deforestation in the tropics
Pastoral Nomadism

Def.- a form of subsistence agriculture based
on the herding of domesticated animals
–


Adapted to dry climates where planting crops is
impossible
Primarily done in North Africa, the Middle
East, and parts of Central Asia
Only 15 million in the World, but sparsely
occupy 20% of land area
Characteristics of Pastoral Nomadism

Depend on animals for survival
–
–
–
Provide milk, skins and hair are used for clothing
and shelter
Usually don’t slaughter for food, but those that die
may be eaten
Grain still the main source of food

May trade for it, or plant a small amount if the land will
support it
Choice of Animals


Type and # chosen based on local customs
and physical characteristics of land
Camels the animal of choice in North Africa
and the Middle East, followed by sheep and
goats
Movements of Pastoral Nomads



Have a strong sense of territoriality
Groups try to control enough territory to
contain the forage and water needed for
survival
Routes are based off of best chances to find
water during the various seasons of the year
continued

Some nomads practice transhumance


Seasonal migration of livestock between mountains and
lowland pasture areas
Pasture- grass or other plants grown for feeding grazing
animals, as well as land used for grazing
The Future of Pastoral Nomadism


Declining form of agriculture
Governments try to resettle them to gain land
that can be irrigated for crops or for the
mining and petroleum industries
Intensive Subsistence Agriculture


Shifting cultivation and pastoral nomadism are found
only in areas of low density in LDCs—they don’t
produce enough to support higher densities
In those areas intensive subsistence agriculture is
used
–
Form of subsistence agriculture in which farmers must
expend a relatively large amount of effort to produce the
maximum feasible yield from a parcel of land
continued




Done in densely populated areas of Asia
Because of the high agricultural density in
East and South Asia, families must produce
enough food for survival off a very small
piece of land
Most work done by hand or with the help of
animals
Virtually no land is wasted
Intensive Subsistence with Wet Rice



Wet rice- the practice of planting rice on dry
land in a nursery and then moving the
seedlings to a flooded field to promote
growth
Occupies small part of Asia’s agricultural land
but is the most important source of food
Common in SE China, East India, and much
of SE Asia
continued

1.
2.
Growing of rice has many
steps
Field plowed with help of
oxen or water buffalo
Land is then flooded with
water (not too much, not
too little, but just right)

Flooded land called a
sawah not a paddy, which
actually means wet rice
continued
3.
4.
5.
6.
Plant seedlings on dry land then transplant them
into the sawah
Plants are harvested by hand using knives
The husks (chaff) are separated from the seeds by
beating them (threshing) on the ground
Threshed rice is put in a tray and the lighter chaff is
winnowed—blown away by the wind
continued

Wet rice more easily
grown on flat land
–
–
Most takes place in river
valleys and deltas
Hillsides are often
terraced t provide more
land for cultivation
continued


Double cropping, harvesting two crops in
one year from the same field, is used in
places with warm winters to increase food
production
Involves alternating between wet rice in the
wetter summer months with wheat or barley
in the winter
Intensive Subsistence with Wet Rice
Not Dominant





The climate in some parts of Asia is not conducive to
growing wet rice (interior of India and NE China)
The crop is different but the characteristics are much
the same
Land used to its fullest, and hand tools and animals
are used
Wheat and Barley are the most important crops
grown for food
Cotton, flax, hemp, and tobacco are grown for sale
continued

In some areas crop rotation can be used to
get more than one harvest
–
Def. as the practice of rotating different fields from crop to
crop each year to avoid exhausting the soil
Plantation Farming



Found in tropics and subtropics of Latin
America, Africa, and Asia
Often owned by Europeans or North
Americans and crops are made for sale in
MDCs
Def.- a large farm that specializes in one or
two crops
–
Cotton, sugarcane, coffee, rubber, and tobacco
are common crops
continued



Import workers and provide food, housing,
and social services
Managers try to spread the work as evenly
as possible throughout the year to make full
use of the large labor force
Where climate permits, more than one crop
is planted and harvested during the year
Where are Agricultural Regions in
More Developed Countries?

6 main types of commercial agriculture in
MDCs:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Mixed crop and livestock
Dairy farming
Grain farming
Livestock ranching
Mediterranean agriculture
Commercial gardening and fruit farming
Mixed Crop and Livestock Farming




Most common type of agriculture west of the
Appalachians and in much of Eastern Europe
Most of crops are fed to animals rather than
consumed by humans
The livestock supply manure to improve fertility to
grow more crops
Typical farm devotes almost all land to growing
crops, but gets more than ¾ of income from sale of
animal products like beef, milk, or eggs
continued


This type of farming allows farmers to
distribute the workload more evenly
throughout the year– animals always need
tending to, not just during planting and
harvesting
Also reduces seasonal variations in income
continued



Crop rotation is often used in mixed crop and
livestock farming
Corn is the most common crop in the US
because higher yields than other crops
Some of the corn is consumed by humans
directly or as oil, margarine, and other food
products, but most is fed to pigs and cattle
continued


The Corn Belt, Ohio to the Dakotas, is the
most important mixed crop and livestock
farming region
Soybeans have become the second most
important crop in US mixed commercial
farming regions
Corn
Hogs and Pigs
Soybeans
Dairy Farming


Most important commercial agriculture
practiced near large urban areas of the NE
US, SE Canada, and NW Europe
India is now the World’s largest producer of
Milk, followed by the US, Pakistan, China,
and Russia
Why Dairy Farms Locate Near Urban
Areas

Milkshed- the geographic ring around a city from
which milk can be supplied without spoiling
– Since milk is highly perishable dairy farms must
be closer to their markets than other types of
farms
– Transportation improvements have allowed dairy
farms to be located further away than their market
– 1840s milkshed was about 30 miles, now about
300 miles
continued




Some dairy farms specialize in products other than
milk such as butter and cheese
In the US, the product selection is based upon
whether the farms are within the milkshed of a large
urban area
The farther away the farm from an urban area, the
less milk they produce
Most farms in the East make milk, in Wisconsin most
is processed into cheese and butter
Continued

Like most commercial
farmers, dairy farmers
do not sell their
products directly to
consumers
–
Produce is sold to
wholesalers, who
distribute to retailers,
who sell it to consumers
Challenges for Dairy Farmers




Face declining revenues and rising costs
Farming is labor intensive-cows must be milked 2
times every day
Cows must be fed in winter months when they can’t
graze on grass
# of farms with milk cows declined in the US by 2/3
between 1980 and 2000, but the # of cows declined
by only 1/8, and production increased by ¼
–
Individual cows are producing more milk
Milk Cows
Grain Farming


Grain- the seed from various grasses, like wheat,
corn, oats, barley, rice, millet, and others
On a grain farm the crops are grown for consumption
–



Crops sold to food manufacturers
Most important crop is wheat, which is used to make
flour
Can be sold for a higher price than other grains and
stores well without spoiling
It is also the World’s largest export crop
continued


US and Canada
account for half of
world’s wheat exports
Plains areas are called
the world’s
“breadbasket”
continued


The US is by far the world’s largest
commercial producer of grains for sale
Canada, Argentina, Australia, France, and
the UK are amongst the few others that
produce grain on a large scale
continued

1.
2.
3.

In North America, large-scale grain production is
concentrated in three areas:
Winter-wheat belt (planted in autumn to develop
roots before winter and harvested in early
summer)- runs thru Kansas, Colorado, and
Oklahoma
Spring-wheat belt (planted in spring and harvested
in late summer)- includes the Dakotas, Montana
and southern Saskatchewan
Washington State – Palouse region
2/3 comes from winter and spring belt
continued


Grain farming is heavily mechanized
McCormick reaper (1830s) permitted largescale wheat production
–

Allowed grain to be cut while its standing in the fields
Today the combine performs in one
operation the tasks of reaping, threshing, and
cleaning
continued



Amount of work is not uniform throughout the
year
Farms often include two sets of fields – one
in spring-wheat belt and one in the winterwheat belt to spread work to other times of
year
Same set of machines can be used on both
farms in this manner
Sorghum
Wheat
Livestock Ranching

Ranching- the commercial grazing of livestock over
an extensive area
–
–

Adapted to arid or semi-arid land
Done in MDCs where crops cannot be supported
Cattle not indigenous to the Americas
–
First brought by Columbus on his second voyage



Thrived and multiplied on plains of NA
Demand for beef in Eastern US cities drove the expansion of
ranching during 1860s
“Cattle drives”
Fixed Location Ranching



Cattle ranching declined in the 1880s when it
began to conflict with sedentary agriculture
“open range” owned by US government,
began to be sold to farmers who didn’t want
cattle roaming thru their fields
Cattle ranchers now had to buy land to graze
their cattle
continued

The predominant breed of cattle also was
changed to be better suited to fixed location
ranching
–
Ex. Herefords are better suited to fixed location
than longhorn who were better suited for the long
drive
continued


Ranching has declined as irrigation has
allowed more land to be planted with crops
Ranches are very large and are often
operated by meat-processing companies
Ranching Outside the US

Rare in Europe
–



Except the Iberian Penn. (Spain and Portugal)
Large portions of Argentina, southern Brazil, and
Uruguay are used for cattle and sheep
Australia, the Middle East, New Zealand, and South
Africa have lots of sheep
Commercial Ranching is different than pastoral
nomadism in that ranching is part of the meat
processing industry rather than just small isolated
farms
Mediterranean Agriculture

Exists primarily on lands that border the
Mediterranean Sea in Southern Europe, North Africa,
and Western Asia
–


Also done in CA, central Chile, and southwestern South
Africa
These places have similar physical environments
Sea winds provide moisture, winters moderate,
summers hot, land hilly
–
Strips of flat land along the coast
continued




Smaller proportion of income comes from animals
than in mixed crop and livestock farming
Transhumance used with sheep and goats
Most crops are grown for human consumption
Horticulture, the growing of fruits, vegetables, and
flowers, along with tree crops make up the bulk of
Mediterranean agriculture
–
Olives, grapes, fruits, and vegetables are grown here
continued




2/3 of world’s wine produced in
the actual Med. Sea area –
other 1/3 produced in Med.
Agricultural regions
Largest supply of Olive Oil also
comes from Med. Sea area
Much of Med. Sea land is also
used for cereal grains to make
bread and pasta
In CA, much land is devoted to
fruit and vegetable horticulture
–citrus fruits, tree nuts and
deciduous fruits
Vegetables
Commercial Gardening and Fruit
Farming

Predominant type of agriculture is SE US
–

Long growing season, humid climate, and accessible to
large markets in Eastern US
Often called truck farming


From the Middle English word meaning bartering or the
exchange of commodities
Grow many of the fruits and vegetables that
consumers demand in more developed societies
–
Ex. Apples, asparagus, cherries, lettuce, mushrooms, and
tomatoes
continued





Some sold fresh to consumers, but most sold to
large processors for canning or freezing
Highly mechanized
Hire migrant workers to keep costs down
Individual farms tend to specialize in a few crops,
and sometimes a handful of farms dominate the
production of some fruits or veggies
Specialty farms have spread to New England
–
Type of truck farm that specializes producing veggies for
wealthy markets –things like peppers, asparagus, and
strawberries
Importance of Access to Markets

Purpose of commercial agriculture is to sell
the produce
–
Therefore, the distance from the farm to the
market influences the type of crop

Ex. Dairy needs to be relatively close to the market
Von Thunen Model



1.
2.
Attempts to explain the importance of proximity to
the market in the choice of crops
First proposed in 1826 in a book called The
Isolated State
Farmers look at two type of costs
Want a crop that can be sold for more than the land
costs
The cost of transporting the crop to the market
continued


The value of the yield per hectare and the
cost of transporting the yield per hectare are
used to select the most profitable crop
Crops with higher transportation costs are
grown closer to the market, distant farms are
likely to select crops that can be transported
less expensively
Challenges for Commercial Farmers



They are victims of their own success
They produce so much that it drives down
the price
Government subsidies help prop up farm
income
continued

1.
2.
3.
US gov. has three policies to address the problem
of excess production
Farmers are encouraged to avoid producing crops
that are in excess supply
Gov. pays farmers when certain commodity prices
are low (gov. sets target and pays farmers the diff.
b/w target and what they actually sell it for)
Gov. buys surplus production and sells or donates
it to foreign gov.s
continued



US spent $25 billion on farm subsidies in
2005
Farming in Europe is subsidized even more
in the US
In MDCs farmers are encouraged to grow
less food. whereas LDCs struggle to
increase food production to match the rate of
growth in the population
Sustainable Agriculture

Def.- an agricultural practice that preserves
and enhances environmental qulaity
–

Generate lower revenues, but also have lower
costs
Organic farming is a pop. form
continued

1.
2.
3.
3 practices distinguish sustainable
agriculture from conventional agriculture
Sensitive land management
Limited use of chemicals
Better integration of crops and livestock
Sensitive Land Management

Ridge tillage- practice of planting crops on
ridge tops
–
Helps lower production costs and increases soil
conservation
Limited Use of Chemicals

Little to no herbicides used to kill weeds
–
Does require more time and expense
Integrated Crop and Livestock

Sustainable agriculture is sensitive to the
complexities of biological and economic
interdependence between crops and
livestock

Read page 353 to learn more
Challenges for Subsistence Farmers

1.
2 major issues challenge subsistence
farmers in LDCs
LDCs= stage 2 of demographic transition
-therefore, must feed a rapidly growing pop.
2.
Because of international trade approach to
economic development, subsistence
farmers must grow food for export rather
than direct consumption
Strategies to Increase the Food Supply
1.
2.
3.
4.
Expand the land area used for agriculture
Increase the productivity of land now used
for agriculture
Identify new food sources
Increase exports from other countries
There are challenges to each of these options
Expanding Cultivated Land Area

Can lead to desertification if land is not
used properly
–
Process of land deteriorating to desert-like conditions
because of human use
 Happens in semi-arid areas
Increase Food Supply Through Higher
Productivity


Green revolution- the rapid development
and diffusion of more productive agricultural
practices during the 1970s and 1980s
Involved the introduction of higher yield
seeds and the expanded use of fertilizers
Increase Food Supply By Identifying
New Food Sources

Three strategies
1.
2.
3.
Cultivate oceans
Develop higher protein cereals
Improve palatability of rarely consumed foods
-overcome religious values, taboos, and unattractiveness
of foods
-ex. Soybeans in America