Women’s Long Term
Mating Strategies
chapter 4
1
Non-human Species

Weaverbird
Evolutionary History



Problem of selecting a man who would be
willing to commit long-term
Over thousands of generations, preference
for men who showed signs of being willing
and able to commit evolved in women
This preference solved key reproductive
problems
2
3 Important issues that are key to
understanding the evolution of
mate preferences:
1- Why has sexual reproduction evolved?
2- the definition of the 2 distinct types that exist in
sexually reproducing species-males and femalesand the related issue of influence of parental
investment on the nature of mating
3- mate preferences as evolved psychological
mechanisms
3
1- Why has sexual reproduction evolved?
Asexual vs. Sexual Reproduction

Asexual

Advantages




Avoid problem of selecting a mate
All genes are passed on: offspring are identical copies of
parents
These advantages of asexual reproduction are the precise
disadvantages of sexual reproduction
Big ??: What advantages could sexual reproduction provide that
would be so large that it would outweigh all the costs?
4
Sexual Reproduction - Consequences


Problems in mate selection and courting (can be costly in time
and resources)
*Genetically Diverse Offspring – offspring are genetically
different from parents and each other (siblings genetically
related by only 50%)



Diff individuals have different survival requirements, which allows
them to inhabit a broader array of niches and cuts down on
competition
Parasite Theory of the origins of sex – genetically different
offspring provide a different host environment for parasites
compared w/original host – parasites are thus thwarted
Sexual reproduction may have helped host organisms and their
offspring combat parasites- providing such a benefit that it
outweighs the costs
**Serious adaptive problem posed by sexual reproduction**
= finding a mate
5
Parental Investment and sexual
selection
• Gametes – mature reproductive cells
-
Males
Small gametes
Greater mobility
Produce millions of sperm
(replenished at a rate of 12
million per hour)
Sexual intercourse requires
minimal male investment
• Zygote – a fertilized gamete
Females
Large gametes
- Stationary
- Loaded with nutrients
- Produce a fixed and unreplenishable
lifetime supply of about 400 ova
* Women have a greater initial
investment *
-
• This investment continues into the nine-month pregnancy
term and breastfeeding
6
Parental Investment and sexual
selection
* The large initial parental investment of women makes them a valuable
reproductive resource *
-
Women in evolutionary past risked investing enormously as a
consequence of sex, evolution favored women who were highly selective
about their mates
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
- Birth Control – suggestion that women can now have short-term sexual
encounters with less fear of pregnancy
discussion ?? – do you think birth control has had an effect on the way
women view casual sex? (are women less selective?)
- Do you think this possible change is a good or bad thing?
(for women? for men? for reproduction in general?)
7
Trivers’s Theory of Parental Investment
and Sexual Selection

Two profound predictions:
(1) The sex that invests more in offspring (typically)
women) will be more discriminating or selective
about mating
(2) The sex that invests less will be more
competitive for sexual access to the highinvesting sex
8
Mate Preferences as Evolved Psychological
Mechanisms




From among the thousands of ways in which men differ, selection
over hundreds of thousands of years focused women’s preferences
on the most adaptively valuable characteristics
Gauging a man’s mating value requires looking beyond his current
situation and evaluating his potential (medical student)
Evolution has favored women who prefer men possessing attributes
that confer benefits
Selecting a mate:



Women must identify and correctly evaluate the cues that signal whether a
man indeed possesses a particular resource (deceive women about status,
etc…)
Women must integrate their knowledge about a prospective mate
* Selecting a mate requires psychological mechanisms that make it
possible to add up the relevant attributes and give each its
appropriate weight in the whole *
9
The Content of Women’s Mate Preferences
10
Women’s mate preferences are played
out in our popular culture…


Older men: “Something’s Gotta Give”
High social status, attractive men: Sex and
the City
11
Discussion of the characteristics scale
• What characteristics did you rate as indispensable?
• What is it about those characteristics that makes them so
important to you?
• Do you think your preference for these characteristics is an
innate preference, or a preference you learned from
somewhere else (possibly experience)?
• What characteristics did you rate as not important or irrelevant?
• Why are these characteristics less important to you in a
mate?
12
Women’s and Men’s Mate Preferences
Category
Women’s
Ranking
Men’s
Ranking
Income in $
65,000
Not part of
ranking
40,000
Not part of
ranking
Financial Prospect
1.9
6th
1.2
5th
2.6
4th
1.2
6th
Age Difference in
Years
2.5 years
older
Not part of
ranking
1.8 years
younger
Not part of
ranking
Dependability
2.69
2nd
2.5
2nd
2.68
3rd
2.47
3rd
Most
1st
Most
1st
1.5
7th
.87
7th
2.28
5th
2.31
4th
Scale (0 – 3)
Social Status
Scale (0 – 3)
Scale (0 – 3)
Stability
Scale (0 – 3)
Love/Commitment
Scale (0 – 3)
Athletic
Scale (0 – 3)
Health & Appearance
Scale (0 – 3)
Link: http://faculty.oxy.edu/clint/evolution/notes/12/matepreferenceranking.htm 13
Preference for Economic Resources



Gray Shrike bird
Wherever females show a mating preference, the
male’s resources are often the key criterion
The evolution of this preference requires 3
preconditions:

1- resources must be accruable, defensible, and
controllable by men throughout history
2- men must differ in their holdings and
willingness to invest them in a woman
3- advantages of being w/1 man must outweigh
those of being with several
these are easily met in humans: Tools, Territory
 Primates

Women needed cues to signal a man’s possession of
resources (personality, physical ability, reputation):
economic resources is the most obvious cue
14
Preference for Good Financial Prospects

Study in 1939, 1956, 1967, and mid-1980’s (Hill; Hudson & Henze; McGinnis)



In personal ads and magazines, female advertisers seek
financial resources 11 times as often as men
Cross-Cultural Study




Women valued good financial prospects in a mate twice as much as did men
: 37 cultures,
monogamous and polygamous, various religious
groups, political systems
Women from all of the cultures placed more value than men on good
financial prospects
Women valued financial resources twice as much
These findings provided the first cross-cultural evidence supporting
the evolutionary basis for the psychology of human mating
(Buss, Abbott, Angleitner, et al., 1990)
Link to figure on financial preference: http://faculty.oxy.edu/clint/evolution/notes/12/fig4_3.html
Clip: Sex and the City
?? – What about poor men? Do they have any hope of marrying up in society? What
15 is
society’s reaction when a woman marries below her “class”?
Preference for High Social Status


Proof that historical cultures had words/phrases to describe men who were in
high social status
Social status is a universal cue to the possession of resources*



Status implies better food, abundant territory, health care
More social opportunities for children
Study by Buss and Schmitt (1993), examining short- and long-term mating: test
which characteristics people valued in potential spouses vs potential sex partners


Likelihood of success in a profession and Possession of a promising career were
both highly desirable (higher in a spouse than sex partner)
For the majority of the 37 cultures in the study, it was found that women valued
social status in a possible mate more than men (both in Communist and Socialist
countries
Ancestral Women
-- appear to have solved the adaptive problem of acquiring resources in part by
preferring men who are high in status

Link to the table of results from study:
http://faculty.oxy.edu/clint/evolution/notes/12/fig4_4.html
16
Preference for Older Men


Age is a clue to resources (they command respect, status, position)
In all 37 cultures in study, women preferred older men (3 1/2 yrs
older)


Older age, resources, and status are coupled across cultures


Tiwi people
Traditional societies – age may be related to physical strength and
hunting prowess (strength increases with age, peaking in early 30’s)


Actual average age difference b/w brides and grooms
After 30’s, decline is compensated for by increased knowledge, skill, wisdom
Much older men – higher risk of dying, less likely to be around to
continue providing for and protecting children
Link to table of results: http://faculty.oxy.edu/clint/evolution/notes/12/fig4_5.html
17
- Economic Resources - Financial Prospects - Social Status - Older men These preferences add up to the ability of a man to acquire and
control resources that ancestral women could use for themselves
and children
Women also need men who posses traits that are likely to lead to the
sustained acquisition of resources over time…
18
Preference for Ambition and Industriousness




Industrious and ambitious men secure a higher occupational status
In a study, women regard men who lack ambition as extremely
undesirable, whereas men view lack of ambition as neither desirable
nor undesirable
Rated b/w important and indispensable
Excellent signal of the continuation of present resources
Ancestral Women
-- helped solve the critical adaptive problem of securing resources
-- helped them gauge the likelihood of future resources when direct and
easily observable signs of resources were absent
19
Preference for Dependability and Stability


Second and third most highly valued characteristics (after love) are a
dependable character and emotional stability*
These characteristics possess great value to women:
1- they are reliable signals that resources will be provided
consistently over time
2- men who lack these provide erratically and inflict heavy
emotional and other costs on their mate
 These are qualities that signal increased likelihood that a woman’s
resources will not be drained by the man

Ancestral Women: erratic supply of resources could wreak havoc with
accomplishing the goals required for survival and reproduction
20
Preference for Athletic Prowess

A cue for physical protection

Barbara Smuts - during evolutionary history, physical protection was
one of the most important things a man could offer a woman




A preference for men 5’11” is ideal for a marriage partner
In personal ads where women mentioned height, 80% wanted a man
taller than 6’




Aggressive men wishing to physically dominate and circumvent women’s
sexual choices may have exerted a selection pressure on ancestral women
Current number of rape incidences today help support this preference
Seeking: I am seeking a man with above average height (5'11"" and above). I
WILL NOT date anyone less than that. I'm not superficial -- just honest and I know
what I like and want and will settle for nothing less. (www.singlesonline.com)
Height: I am extremely attracted to but not limited to tall men (6'2 and up).
(www.yahoopersonals.com)
Tall men received more responses to their personal ads than did short
men
“traits of male body structure such as height, shoulder width, and
upper-body musculature are sexually attractive to women and
intimidating to other men” (Barber, 1995, p. 406)
21
Preference for Good Health and Physical
Appearance

Unhealthy Mates
-----
Higher risk of becoming debilitated (fail to provide resources)
Increased risk of dying (cut off resources, must find a new mate)
Transfer diseases or viruses to the woman (impair her survival)
Risk passing on unhealthy genes or poor health to children

Men and Women both place a high value on health in a mate

Peacocks


Their bright plumage serves as a signal of a low load
of parasites
One cue for the health of a mate is Symmetry



(Thornhill, Gangestad, Grammer,
Schackelford, Larsen, and others)
The degree to which the face and the body are symmetrical
Various events and genetic stressors produced deviations from bilateral symm.
Symmetry reflects the ability to withstand environmental and genetic stressors
22
Symmetry in the Human Face
Marquardt Beauty Analysis (MBA)
www.beautyanalysis.com

“the form of beauty is composed of 2 things: symmetry, harmony”
1- Symmetry: the mirror image of parts or components about an
axis. By all accounts a beautiful face is symmetric along the y-axis.
2- Harmony: a recurring theme

With the use of mathematics, computers, and databases full of “attractive”
faces, MBA has been able to quantify facial attractiveness in a consistent
computer model
The “Golden Facial Mask” – based on a series of ratios and geometric shapes
-- From this mask comes the “archetypal human face”
Link to MBA: http://www.beautyanalysis.com/index2_mba.htm
23
As you can see, these “archetypal”
faces are symmetrical and made
up of a series of recurrent geometric
shapes and patterns.
24
An example of how a (beautiful) person’s face fits this “Golden Facial Mask”
25
The “average” face deviates from the “Archetypal Human Face”
26
The “ugly” face does not fit into the mask at all –
the nose is too wide, eyes are too far apart, cheekbones too rounded, etc…
27
Preference for Good Health and Physical
Appearance

Another cue stems from Masculine Features



Masculine features are a sign of good health




Men have longer and broader lower jaws, stronger brow ridges, and
more pronounced cheekbones – (consequence of testosterone)
Women preferred men’s faces that were more masculine-looking than
avg.
(Johnston)
Production of high levels of testosterone compromises the immune system
Only men who are healthy can “afford” to produce high levels
QuickTime movie study supports this
The benefits of a healthy mate:




longer life
More reliable provisioning
Lower likelihood of communicable diseases
Better genes that can be passed on to children
28
Love and Commitment

Gauging commitment requires looking for cues
that signal the likelihood of future fidelity in
channeling resources



LOVE may be one of the key cues to commitment
Found the presence of romantic love in 88.5% of
cultures
Study examined acts of love

(Buss, 1988a)
Acts of commitment were viewed as most central to
love


Giving up romantic relations with others, talking of marriage,
expressing a desire to have children
When performed by a man, these acts signal intent to commit
resources
29
Commitment







Fidelity – remaining faithful
Channeling of resources to the loved one – giving expensive gifts
Emotional support – being available, listening to problems
Channeling of time, energy, and effort to the partner’s needs at the
expense of fulfilling one’s own needs
Acts of reproduction
All of these signal the commitment of sexual, economic, emotional, and
genetic resources to one person
“Sex and the City” – Why do some women want men who refuse
to commit? Why do some women only like
to “chase” men?
30
Love



Seen as indispensable for
marriage
89% of American women, 82%
of Japanese women, and 59% of
Russian women said that they
require love for marriage, even if
all other important qualities were
met (Sprecher et al., 1994)
In the international study (rating
the 18 characteristics), LOVE
WAS GIVEN THE TOP RATING
(most highly valued in a potential
mate)
31
Preference for Willingness to Invest in
Children

This adaptive problem is important for 2 reasons:
1- Men sometimes seek sexual variety and so may channel their
efforts toward other women (mating) rather than toward children
2- Men evaluate the likelihood that they are the actual genetic
father of a child and tend to withhold investment from the child when
they know or think the child is not theirs

Study by La Cerra




Slide images of men in 5 different contexts
-- women rated each image on how attractive they found the man in each
slide as a date, sexual partner, marriage partner, friend, and neighbor
Results: women’s ratings of the attractiveness of men as potential mates are
increased by cues of their affection toward a child and decreased by cues of their
indifference toward a child in distress
Replicated same study with images of women for men to rate
Results: Men’s attractiveness judgments were the same across all contexts
32
Recap from Tuesday

3 Issues that are key to the evolution of mate preferences:
1- Evolution of Sexual Reproduction – genetically diverse offspring help combat parasites
2- Parental investment – females have greater investment, choosier about mates
3- Mate preferences as evolved psychological mechanisms

The Content of Women’s Mate Preferences










Economic Resources
Good Financial Prospects
High social status – cue to the possession of resources
Older men – coupled with resources and status
Ambition and Industriousness – likelihood of future resources
Dependability and Stability – (rated 2nd and 3rd)
Athletic Prowess – physical protection
Good Health and Physical Appearance – live longer, continuation of resources
Love and Commitment – ranked first of all the characteristics desired in a mate
Willingness to Invest in Children - reproduction
33
Context Effects on Women’s Mate
Preferences
Women’s preferences in a mate should depend in part on
relevant contexts





Women’s personal resources
Temporal context (committed vs casual mating)
Menstrual cycle
Women’s mate value
Geographical Location
34
Effects of Women’s Personal Resources

Structural Powerlessness Hypothesis

Because women are typically excluded from power and access to resources,
women seek mates who have power, status, and earning capacity


(Buss & Barnes, 1986; Eagly & Wood, 1999)
Men do not value economic resources in a mate because they already have control
over these resources
Problems with this hypothesis
Bakweri women – despite their access to money and mates, they still
prefer mates with resources
 College women – prefer intelligent men with signs of ambition
 *Successful women with resources - place an even greater value on mates
who have professional degrees, high
status, and greater intelligence, and who
are tall, independent, and self-confident
 These directly contradict the Structural Powerlessness hypothesis


?? – Why do you think successful women place an even greater value on
successful men with resources than less successful women?
35
Effects of Temporal Context

Study by Buss and Schmitt (1993)


Study by Scheib (1997)


Women’s preferences shift depending on whether a marriage partner or
casual sex partner is sought
In long-term marital context, women chose character over looks
Women emphasize character traits over attractiveness when
evaluating a potential husband
36
Effects of Menstrual Cycle

Chance of becoming pregnant increases in late follicular phase as
women approach ovulation and is lowest in the postovulation phase



Sense of smell increases at or just before ovulation



Study on smelly T-shirts (Thornhill & Gangestead, 1999)
Link to study: (Blackboard – External Links)
http://courses.creighton.edu/webapps/portal/frameset.jsp?tab=courses&url=/bin/common/course.
pl?course_id=_50199_1
Ovulatory-Shift Hypothesis: When women are likely to conceive,
their preference shifts toward more masculine-looking male faces and
the scents from men who are more symmetrical


Preferences that occur in late follicular phase could reflect mate choice for “good
genes”
“Good genes” hypothesis seems to find support in research findings
The attractiveness of traits that are supposed to make good life partnerskindness, intelligence, potential for wealth-are unchanged across the
monthly cycle (Gangestead, 2006)
These might reflect adaptations in women to become fertilized by the
healthiest men
37
Ovulatory-Shift Hypothesis
Adaptations to ovulation: Implications for sexual and social behavior
Gangestead, S. W., Thornhill, R., & Garver-Apgar, C.E

when fertile, women prefer…
The scent of a symmetrical man: women preferred the scent of symmetrical

men
Masculine features: women prefer more masculine faces, particularly when
they rate men’s sexiness, not attractiveness, as long-term
mates

Behavioral displays of social presence and intrasexual competitiveness:


women found men who were confident and who acted condescending
toward their male competitors (in a video tape interview) as more sexy
Vocal masculinity: when rating men’s short-term attractiveness, women find
masculine (deep) voices more attractive
Talent versus wealth: when faced with trade-offs between talent (creativity)
and wealth, women choose talent more often, but only
when evaluating men’s short-term mating attractiveness
 Men judged to be faithful were rated as less sexy mid-cycle than at other times
 women’s preference for men other than their current partners also rises
38
Male Counterstrategies to the Ovulatory-Shift
Hypothesis


If women’s interest in their current partners is lowered during fertility,
men should have been under selection to take additional steps to
prevent them from seeking extra-pair sex at this time…
Cues of women’s fertility status:




Men find the scent of ovulating women particularly attractive
Men also judge women’s faces as more attractive mid-cycle
Women’s behavior may also change too
Gangestead et al. (2002) found that male vigilance of partners mid-cycle
was predicted by enhanced female interest in extra-pair men and not
their partners

Men may be particularly vigilant of their partners mid-cycle, when their partners
least want them to be
39
Effects of Women’s Mate Value

Mate value = one’s overall desirability to men



Women’s self-rated attractiveness was significantly linked to attraction to
masculine faces
Personal Ads (Canada, America, and Poland)



physical attractiveness and youth
Women with higher mate value specified a longer list of traits that they
sought or required in a potential mate
They also tended to impose higher minimum standards in their mate
requirements– specifically on social status, intelligence, and family
orientation
Women who are higher in mate value prefer and seek men who are
higher in mate value: masculinity, symmetry, and the number of qualities
that contribute to men’s desirability
40
Geographical Location

In personal ads, women who live in more densely populated
cities or cities where there is a higher cost of living make greater
demands for resources in a mate
41
How Women’s Mate Preferences Affect
Actual Mating Behavior
• For preferences to evolve, they must affect actual mating
decisions at least some of the time
• Sources of evidence that preferences do affect mating decision:
• Women’s responses to men’s personal ads
• Women’s marriages to men high in occupational status
• Women’s marriages to older men
42
Women’s Responses to Men’s Personal
Ads

Study by Baize and Schroeder (1995), found several
variables that significantly predicted the number of
responses men received



1 – Age: women responded more often to older men
2 – Income and Education: responded more to men with ads
indicating higher income and more years of education
Study in Poland received similar results: men with higher levels of
education, men who were somewhat older, men who were taller,
and men who offered more resources all received a larger number
of responses from women
43
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Personal Ads
“Women Seeking:”
Seeking : I want honesty. I want a
man who is handsome and successful
and knows how to treat a lady.
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sweetsteph72
I am looking for friendship and love on this journey we call life!
Orientation: Straight
Age: 34
Gentleman who posses Virtues,
Moral, Respect, Sincerity,
Honesty
sassysmile
A Sense of humor, a dab of old fashioned charm,
a splash of confidence, and a pinch of wit....
makes for a man to turn this girl's head!
Orientation: Straight
Age: 39
I am seeking a handsome 6'3"" or taller, toned, mature man, 3846. You must be strong, passionate, romantic, secure, openminded, kind, caring, fatherly role model, a good listener, and
very loving. I am NOT looking for a fling or one night stand.
mayagirl622
I would like to meet a guy who has a great personality and a
good sense of humor. He would need to be open, honest and
trustworthy, sincere, dependable, genuine and just an
all-around likeable guy.
Orientation: Straight
Age: 32
44
Women’s Marriages to Men High in
Occupational Status

Physically attractive women marry men who are higher in social
status and financial holdings


Women’s physical attractiveness correlated more strongly with her
husband’s status than did other women’s variables such as class of origin
Attractive women are in a position to get what they want

They appear to select the qualities that most women desire—men with
status and resources
Women’s Marriages to Men Are Older

In every country from the international study, grooms were older
on average than brides

Men’s preferences for younger women may also affect the actual age
differences b/w brides and grooms
45
Lesbian Sexual Orientation



Occurs in 1-2% of women (Bailey et al., 1997)
Female sexuality appears to be far more flexible over the lifespan than
male sexual orientation (Baumeister, 2000)
Variability within those classified as “lesbian” or “gay”
 mate preferences vary across lesbians who describe themselves as
“butch” as opposed to “femme”
- Butch lesbians are more masculine, dominant, assertive
- have higher levels of testosterone, more permissive attitudes towards
casual sex, more masculine waist-to-hip ratios, less desire for kids
- place less value on financial resources when seeking partners but
experience more jealousy over rivals who are more financially successful
- Femme lesbians are more sensitive, cheerful, and feminine
- place greater importance on financial resources when seeking partners
and experience sexual jealousy over more attractive rivals
 These imply that “butch” and “femme” are not simply labels, but rather
reflect genuine differences

Their origins still remain a mystery
46
Discussion Questions

Not very many individuals meet all the criteria set by mate preferences.
They may have the physical characteristics (healthy, attractive) but lack
in resources or financial prospects… so which of the preferences are
most important:



For a typical relationship to survive (love vs. resources?)
For successful reproduction and offspring
What about romance? Does anyone have a list of things (mental or on
paper) that they “must have” in a mate? (things like must be romantic,
must be willing to dance with me, etc…) What OTHER qualities do you
look for in a partner?
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Polygamy
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“The Masai of Kenya” video
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“Polygamy: A True Story of 1 Husband and 8 Wives”
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The women view multiple wives as a good thing
Women have many jobs – more co-wives means a greater divide of the work
Link to video: Polygamy 1- A True Story of 1 Husband and 8 Wives
Questions for discussion
In the search for a mate who is willing to commit, why would a woman
choose a partner that she has to share with other women?
Although these women say they like their polygamist lifestyle, do you think
they would choose a monogamous relationship if given the option?
What do you think about polygamy in today’s society? What might be the
advantages of being in a polygamist relationship?
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The Evolution of Human Mate Choice

Mate Choice in Non-Human Species


OSR (operational sex ratio) – the ratio of sexually active males to sexually
active females in a given breeding population; related to rate of reproduction
One result of female mate choice is the evolution of exaggerated male traits


Related to immunocompetence – the ability to resist infection by parasites
Mate Choice in Humans
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Reproductive potential – the individual’s ability invest in the growth,
development, and later social and reproductive competencies of offspring
Reproductive investment – the expenditure of this potential offspring
Divorce – a woman’s decision to stay married or not is influenced by the
quality and quantity of resources provided by her husband

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Cross-cultural study, “inadequate support is reported as the cause for
divorce in 21 societies and ascribed exclusively to the husband in all but 1
case (Betzing, as cited in Geary D.C., Vigil, J., Byrd-Craven, J., 2004)
Across age, ethnic status, and socioeconomic status, women preferred
husbands who were better educated than they were and who earned more
money than they did

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Found this pattern for women ranging in age fro 20s to 60s
When women are forced to make trade-offs b/w a marriage partner’s
cultural success and other important traits such as physical attractiveness, a
prospective marriage partner’s cultural success is rated as a necessity and
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other characteristics as a luxury
Cont…

Preference for culturally successful men is found in studies of singles
ads and fiction novels



1,000 “lonely hearts” ads, found that British women were 3x more likely than
British men to seek financial security in prospective partner (McGrew, 1994)
Japanese women were 31x more likely than Japanese men to seek financial
security and social status (9.4% of women sought, .3% of men) (Oda, 2001)
Same themes were found across 25 contemporary romance novels and 6 classic
novels that have appealed to women more than men (2 stories from Old T.)

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In these stories, the male protagonist is almost always an older, socially dominant,
and wealthy man
Study of more than 1,800 Hungarian men and women (35 yrs or older) found
that women who had married older and better educated men on avg. had more
children, were less likely to get divorced, and reported higher levels of marital
satisfaction
Many women prefer men with whom they can develop an intimate and
emotionally satisfying relationship with


More common in middle- and upper-class Western cultures than in any other
cultures
In many non-Western contexts, women are more focused on keeping their
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children alive than on developing intimacy with their husbands (Masai women)
Cont…

Physical Attractiveness and Good Genes


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Indicators of man’s physical and genetic health
Women prefer a taller than avg. man with an athletic and symmetric body
shape, including a .9 waist-to-hip ratio, and shoulders that are somewhat
wider than their hips
Facial features: larger eyes, large smile area, prominent cheek bones and
chin
Shackelford and Larson (1997) found that men with less symmetric facial
features were less physically active, manifested more symptoms of
depression or anxiety, and reported more minor physical problems than their
peers with more symmetric faces


Also have higher basal metabolic rates, lower IQ’s, and fewer sexual partners
Physically smaller and less robust men are less likely to be chosen as marriage
partners (Phillips et al., 2001) (Nettle, 2002)
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Cont…

Women’s mate/marriage choices are also influenced by men’s immunesystem genes


Women are not directly aware of this, but immune-system genes are
signaled thru pheromones and women respond to these scents (especially
when fertile)
In terms of disease-resistance, the best outcome for offspring occurs when
there is high variability in immune-system genes



A study found that women rated the scents of men with dissimilar immunesystem genes as more pleasant and sexy than the scents of men with similar
immune-system genes (Wedekind et al., 1995)
Ober found that couples with dissimilar immune-system genes conceived more
quickly (2 vs 5 months) and had fewer spontaneous abortions than did couples
with more similar genes (1997)
Physically attractive women rated masculine-looking men as more
attractive long-term partners than did other women, presumably b/c
attractive women are better able to divert (thru threats of abandonment)
the activities of those attractive men from mating effort to parental effort
(Little et al., 2001)
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Alternative Mating Strategies

Women can sometimes benefit from engaging in short-term sexual
relationships or with someone other than her partner (or polyandry)


Short-Term Mates
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

Allow women to secure additional material resources for themselves and
children or allow women to mate with physically attractive men and thus
secure better genes for their children
Men’s preference for short-term mates and sexual variety creates a demand
that some women use for financial gains
Some women appear to engage in short-term sexual relationships when they
see the potential for future development of a long-term relationship
Extra-Pair Sex




20% of American women reported engaging in at least 1 extra-marital affair,
some resulting in pregnancy
When women initiated an infidelity, occurred around time of ovulation
Cuckoldry is common (male partner parenting another male’s offspring)
Dynamics of women’s EPC’s appear to be influenced by hormonal fluctuations
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Cont…

Serial Monogamy and Polyandry


For many women, marriage to a socially dominant, wealthy, and physically
attractive man who is devoted to her and her children is not achievable
To adjust, some women develop a successive series of relationships with a
number of men or several simultaneously, each of whom provides some
investment during the course of the relationship

South American Indian societies – women engage in sexual relations with men who are
not their social partners, especially after becoming pregnant. These secondary fathers
are obligated to provide material resources and protection to the woman’s child. The
confusion of paternity is such that both the primary and secondary fathers invest in the
child
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