LO 6.1
Chapter 6 - Memory
Mastering the World of Psychology, Fifth Edition
Samuel Wood | Ellen Green Wood | Denise Boyd
LO 6.1
The Structure of Human Memory:
What is Memory?
• Memory
– a cognitive process that includes the
encoding, storage, and retrieval of
information
Mastering the World of Psychology, Fifth Edition
Samuel Wood | Ellen Green Wood | Denise Boyd
Figure 6.1 The Processes Required for Remembering
The act of remembering requires successful completion of all three of these processes: encoding, storage, and
retrieval.
Mastering the World of Psychology, Fifth Edition
Samuel Wood | Ellen Green Wood | Denise Boyd
Figure 6.2 Characteristics of and Processes involved in the Three Memory Systems Proposed by
Atkinson and Shiffrin
The three memory systems differ in what and how much they hold and for how long they store it.
Mastering the World of Psychology, Fifth Edition
Samuel Wood | Ellen Green Wood | Denise Boyd
LO 6.2
The Structure of Human Memory:
Sensory Memory
• Briefly holds information from the
senses
– visual information: for a fraction of a
second
– auditory information: up to 2 seconds
Mastering the World of Psychology, Fifth Edition
Samuel Wood | Ellen Green Wood | Denise Boyd
Figure 6.2 Characteristics of and Processes involved in the Three Memory Systems Proposed by
Atkinson and Shiffrin
The three memory systems differ in what and how much they hold and for how long they store it.
Mastering the World of Psychology, Fifth Edition
Samuel Wood | Ellen Green Wood | Denise Boyd
The Structure of Human Memory:
Short-Term Memory
LO 6.3
• Capacity
– seven (plus or minus two) items for less
than thirty seconds without rehearsal
• Also called working memory
– STM acts as a workspace for carrying
out mental activity
Mastering the World of Psychology, Fifth Edition
Samuel Wood | Ellen Green Wood | Denise Boyd
The Structure of Human Memory:
Short-Term Memory (STM)
LO 6.3
• Displacement
– occurs when STM is full
– new incoming item pushes out an
existing item
• Chunking
– grouping bits of information into larger
units
Mastering the World of Psychology, Fifth Edition
Samuel Wood | Ellen Green Wood | Denise Boyd
The Structure of Human Memory:
Short-Term Memory (STM)
LO 6.3
• Rehearsal
– repeating information to maintain it in
STM
 maintenance rehearsal
– repeating information until stored in LTM
 elaborative rehearsal
– linking new information to that already
known
Mastering the World of Psychology, Fifth Edition
Samuel Wood | Ellen Green Wood | Denise Boyd
LO 6.3
Short-Term Memory:
Levels of Processing in Working Memory
• Maintenance Rehearsal
– "shallow" processing
– encoding based on superficial features
of information
• Elaborative Rehearsal
– "deep" processing
– encoding based on the meaning of
information
Mastering the World of Psychology, Fifth Edition
Samuel Wood | Ellen Green Wood | Denise Boyd
LO 6.4
The Structure of Human Memory:
Long-Term Memory (LTM)
• Virtually unlimited capacity
• Contains vast stores of a person's
permanent or relatively permanent
memories
• Main Subsystems of LTM
– Declarative memory
– Non-declarative memory
Mastering the World of Psychology, Fifth Edition
Samuel Wood | Ellen Green Wood | Denise Boyd
Figure 6.3 Subsystems of Long-Term Memory
Declarative memory can be divided into two subsystems: episodic memory, which stores memories of personally
experienced events, and semantic memory, which stores facts and information. Nondeclarative memory consists
of motor skills acquired through repetitive practice and simple classically conditioned responses.
Mastering the World of Psychology, Fifth Edition
Samuel Wood | Ellen Green Wood | Denise Boyd
Long-Term Memory:
Declarative Memory
• Stores facts, information, personal life
events
– Episodic Memory
 records events as they have been
subjectively experienced
– Semantic Memory
 stores general knowledge or objective
facts and information
Mastering the World of Psychology, Fifth Edition
Samuel Wood | Ellen Green Wood | Denise Boyd
LO 6.4
Long-Term Memory:
Non-Declarative Memory
• Also called implicit memory
• Stores motor skills, habits, and simple
classically conditioned responses
Mastering the World of Psychology, Fifth Edition
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LO 6.4
A Closer Look at Retrieval:
Measuring Retrieval
• Recall
– task in which a person must produce
required information by searching
memory
• Retrieval Cue
– any stimulus or bit of information that
aids in retrieving particular information
from long-term memory
Mastering the World of Psychology, Fifth Edition
Samuel Wood | Ellen Green Wood | Denise Boyd
LO 6.5
A Closer Look at Retrieval:
Measuring Retrieval
LO 6.5
• Recognition
– identify material as familiar or as having
been encountered before
• Relearning Method
– measure of memory
– Retention is expressed as the
percentage of time saved when material
is relearned compared with the time
required to learn the material originally.
Mastering the World of Psychology, Fifth Edition
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LO 6.8
Remembering
Remembering as
as Reconstruction:
Reconstruction: Source,
Source
Flashbulb,
Flashbulb and
and Autobiographical
Autobiographical Memories
Memories
• Source Memory
– a recollection of the circumstances in
which a memory was formed
– Most memories do not include sources.
– source monitoring
 practice of intentionally keeping track of
the sources of incoming information
 necessary for encoding
Mastering the World of Psychology, Fifth Edition
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LO 6.8
Remembering as Reconstruction: Source,
Flashbulb, and Autobiographical Memories
• Flashbulb Memories
– memories for shocking, emotionprovoking events
– include information about the source
from which the information was
acquired
– reconstructive in nature
Mastering the World of Psychology, Fifth Edition
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LO 6.8
Remembering as Reconstruction: Source,
Flashbulb, and Autobiographical Memories
• Autobiographical Memories
– recollections that include an account of
the events of person's own life
– reconstructive in nature and include
factual, emotional, and interpretive
information
Mastering the World of Psychology, Fifth Edition
Samuel Wood | Ellen Green Wood | Denise Boyd
LO 6.8
Remembering as Reconstruction: Source,
Flashbulb, and Autobiographical Memories
• Autobiographical Memories
– positive bias
 Pleasant autobiographical memories are
more easily recalled than unpleasant
ones.
 Memories of unpleasant events become
more emotionally positive over time.
Mastering the World of Psychology, Fifth Edition
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LO 6.9
Influences on Reconstructive Memory
• Expertise
– possessing extensive background
knowledge that is relevant to a
reconstructive memory task
• Culture
– may influence ability to remember
certain kinds of material
Mastering the World of Psychology, Fifth Edition
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LO 6.9
Influences on Reconstructive Memory
• Culture
– Elders of the Iatmul people of New
Guinea exhibit impressive memory for
the oral history of their people.
– The Asur people of India have
exceptional memory for locations.
Mastering the World of Psychology, Fifth Edition
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Figure 6.5 Ebbinghaus’s Curve of Forgetting
After memorizing lists of nonsense syllables similar to those at left, Ebbinghaus measured his retention
after varying intervals of time using the relearning method. Forgetting was most rapid at first, as shown by his
retention of only 58% after 20 minutes and 44% after 1 hour. Then, the rate of forgetting tapered off, with a
retention of 34% after 1 day, 25% after 6 days, and 21% after 31 days.
Source: Data from Ebbinghaus (1885/1964, 1913).
Mastering the World of Psychology, Fifth Edition
Samuel Wood | Ellen Green Wood | Denise Boyd
LO 6.10
Forgetting: Ebbinghaus and the Curve
of Forgetting
• Learned and relearned more than 1,200
lists of nonsense syllables to discover
how rapidly forgetting occurs
• Curve of Forgetting
– Forgetting tapers off after a period of
rapid information loss immediately
following learning.
– Meaningful material is forgotten more
slowly, encoded more deeply.
Mastering the World of Psychology, Fifth Edition
Samuel Wood | Ellen Green Wood | Denise Boyd
Forgetting:
Why Do We Forget?
LO 6.11
• Encoding Failure
– occurs when information was never put
into long-term memory
– Can you recognize the real penny?
 Few people can recognize the accurate
drawing of the penny.
Mastering the World of Psychology, Fifth Edition
Samuel Wood | Ellen Green Wood | Denise Boyd
Forgetting:
Why Do We Forget?
• Decay Theory
– Memories, if not used, fade with time
and eventually disappear.
– Decay does not appear in long-term
memories.
Mastering the World of Psychology, Fifth Edition
Samuel Wood | Ellen Green Wood | Denise Boyd
LO 6.11
Figure 6.7 Retroactive and Proactive interference As shown in Example 1, retroactive interference occurs
when new learning hinders the ability to recall information learned previously. As shown in Example 2, proactive
interference occurs when prior learning hinders new learning.
Mastering the World of Psychology, Fifth Edition
Samuel Wood | Ellen Green Wood | Denise Boyd
Forgetting:
Interference
• Proactive Interference
– Information already stored in memory
interferes with remembering newer
information.
• Retroactive Interference
– New learning interferes with
remembering previously learned
information.
Mastering the World of Psychology, Fifth Edition
Samuel Wood | Ellen Green Wood | Denise Boyd
LO 6.11
LO 6.11
Why Do We Forget?
• Consolidation Failure
– disruption in the consolidation process
that prevents long-term memory from
forming
• Motivated Forgetting
– suppression or repression in an effort to
protect oneself from material that is
painful, frightening, or otherwise
unpleasant
Mastering the World of Psychology, Fifth Edition
Samuel Wood | Ellen Green Wood | Denise Boyd
LO 6.11
Why Do We Forget?
• Prospective Forgetting
– not remembering to carry out some
intended action
– most likely to forget action perceived as
unpleasant
Mastering the World of Psychology, Fifth Edition
Samuel Wood | Ellen Green Wood | Denise Boyd
LO 6.11
Why Do We Forget?
• Retrieval Failure
– not remembering something one is
certain of knowing
– tip-of-the-tongue (TOT) phenomenon
 knowing information has been learned
but being unable to retrieve it
Mastering the World of Psychology, Fifth Edition
Samuel Wood | Ellen Green Wood | Denise Boyd
Forgetting
Mastering the World of Psychology, Fifth Edition
Samuel Wood | Ellen Green Wood | Denise Boyd
LO 6.12
Biology and Memory:
The Hippocampus and Hippocampal
Region
• Hippocampus
– plays an important role in forming
episodic memories
– Formation of semantic memories
involves the hippocampus and parts of
the hippocampal region.
Mastering the World of Psychology, Fifth Edition
Samuel Wood | Ellen Green Wood | Denise Boyd
LO 6.12
Biology and Memory:
The Hippocampus and Hippocampal
Region
• Hippocampus
– The hippocampus is also involved in
navigational skills.
 The posterior of hippocampus is larger in
taxi drivers than in the general
population.
Mastering the World of Psychology, Fifth Edition
Samuel Wood | Ellen Green Wood | Denise Boyd
Biology and Memory:
Neuronal Changes and Memory
LO 6.13
• Long-Term Potentiation (LTP)
– an increase in the efficiency of neural
transmission at the synapse that lasts
for hours or longer
– does not take place unless both sending
and receiving neurons are activated at
the same time
– Blocking LTP interferes with learning.
 long-term memories not formed
Mastering the World of Psychology, Fifth Edition
Samuel Wood | Ellen Green Wood | Denise Boyd
LO 6.14
Hormones and Memory
• Our strongest and most lasting
memories are usually fueled by
emotion.
• Epinephrine (adrenalin) and
norepinephrine (noradrenalin) activate
the amygdala.
– help imprint powerful, enduring
memories for threatening events
– "fight-or-flight response"
Mastering the World of Psychology, Fifth Edition
Samuel Wood | Ellen Green Wood | Denise Boyd
LO 6.14
Hormones and Memory
• Excessive levels of cortisol can interfere
with memory.
• Estrogen appears to improve working
memory efficiency in pre-menopausal
women.
– Post-menopausal estrogen replacement
may increase the risk of dementia.
– More research concerning the treatment
of age-related memory loss is needed.
Mastering the World of Psychology, Fifth Edition
Samuel Wood | Ellen Green Wood | Denise Boyd
LO 6.15
Memory Loss
• Amnesia
– partial or complete loss of memory
– due to loss of consciousness, brain
damage, or some psychological cause
• Anterograde Amnesia
– inability to form new long-term
memories
– case of H. M.
Mastering the World of Psychology, Fifth Edition
Samuel Wood | Ellen Green Wood | Denise Boyd
LO 6.15
Memory Loss
• Retrograde Amnesia
– loss of memory for experiences that
occurred shortly before a loss of
consciousness
Mastering the World of Psychology, Fifth Edition
Samuel Wood | Ellen Green Wood | Denise Boyd
LO 6.15
Memory Loss
• Dementia
– mental deterioration characterized by
impaired memory and intellect
– altered personality and behavior
– Individuals with dementia can lose
episodic and semantic memories.
– can result from cerebral arteriosclerosis,
chronic alcoholism, strokes
Mastering the World of Psychology, Fifth Edition
Samuel Wood | Ellen Green Wood | Denise Boyd
LO 6.15
Memory Loss
• Alzheimer's Disease
– a form of dementia caused by
degeneration of brain cells
– High IQ plus lifelong intellectual activity
may delay or lessen Alzheimer
symptoms.
– A new drug, bapineuzumab, prevents
the development of neurofibrillary
tangles and shows promise for the
treatment of Alzheimer's.
Mastering the World of Psychology, Fifth Edition
Samuel Wood | Ellen Green Wood | Denise Boyd
LO 6.16
Memory in Legal and Therapeutic
Settings: Eyewitness Testimony
• Human memory is reconstructive.
– Eyewitness testimony is highly subject
to error.
– should always be viewed with caution
(Loftus, 1979)
• The physiological stress of being a
crime victim creates memory gaps.
Mastering the World of Psychology, Fifth Edition
Samuel Wood | Ellen Green Wood | Denise Boyd
LO 6.16
Memory in Legal and Therapeutic
Settings: Eyewitness Testimony
• Misinformation Effect
– erroneous recollections of witnessed
events
– results from information learned after
the fact
Mastering the World of Psychology, Fifth Edition
Samuel Wood | Ellen Green Wood | Denise Boyd
LO 6.16
Memory in Legal and Therapeutic
Settings: Eyewitness Testimony
• Factors Affecting Testimony Reliability
– Viewing a photograph of a suspect
before seeing a lineup
– Viewing members of lineup all at the
same time, rather than one at a time
– The perpetrator's race is different from
that of the witness.
– Weapon used in the crime
– Leading questions used
Mastering the World of Psychology, Fifth Edition
Samuel Wood | Ellen Green Wood | Denise Boyd
LO 6.17
Memory in Legal and Therapeutic Settings:
The Repressed Memory Controversy
• Repression
– process by which traumatic memories
are buried in the unconscious
– Hypnosis and guided imagery are often
used to help clients recover repressed
memories of childhood sexual abuse.
– Critics argue that therapists sometimes
implant false memories in clients.
Mastering the World of Psychology, Fifth Edition
Samuel Wood | Ellen Green Wood | Denise Boyd
LO 6.17
Memory in Legal and Therapeutic Settings:
The Repressed Memory Controversy
• Repression
– Imagining a fictitious event can lead to
a false memory of the event.
• Infantile Amnesia
– relative inability of older children and
adults to recall events from the first few
years of life
– hippocampus in brain not fully
developed
Mastering the World of Psychology, Fifth Edition
Samuel Wood | Ellen Green Wood | Denise Boyd