Motivation and Emotion
stolen off www.appsychology.com
majorly altered by Mr. C.
A need or desire that energizes behavior and directs it
toward a goal
Motivation
• Instinct Theory
(evolutionary): we
are motivated by our
inborn automated
behaviors.
– Genes predispose
species-typical
behavior (reflexes)
• But instincts only
explain why we do a
small fraction of our
behaviors.
Drive Reduction Theory
• Our behavior is
motivated by
BIOLOGICAL NEEDS.
• Wants to maintain
homeostasis.
• When there is both a
need and an incentive,
we feel strongly
driven
• Eating, drinking, hot
or cold, using the
restroom
Arousal Theory
• We are motivated to
seek an optimum
level of arousal.
• We feel drive to
experience
stimulation and we
hunger for
information
• Lacking stimulation
we fill bored, too
much we may feel
stressed
Yerkes-Dodson Law
• The Yerkes-Dodson Law
says we perform best
under the optimal
amount of arousal. (Like
Goldilocks)
• Not too much, not too
little.
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
• Abraham Maslow said
we are motivated by
needs, and all needs
are not created equal.
• We are driven to
satisfy the lower
level needs first.
Motivation of HUNGER
Biological Basis of Hunger
• Hunger does NOT
come from our
stomach.
It comes from our…
• Brain
– The Hypothalamus
Hypothalamus
Lateral Hypothalamus
• When stimulated it
makes you hungry.
• When lesioned
(destroyed) you will
never be hungry again.
Ventromedial Hypothalamus
• When stimulated you
feel full.
• When lesioned you will
never feel full again.
Set Point Theory
• The hypothalamus acts
like a thermostat.
• Wants to maintain a
stable weight.
• Activate the lateral
when you diet and
activate the
ventromedial when you
start to gain weight.
• Setting point: weight
response to caloric
intake
• Leptin theory
Body Chemistry
• Glucose
• The hormone insulin
converts glucose to
fat.
• When glucose levels
drop- hunger
increases.
Psychological Aspects of Hunger
• Internals versus Externals
• People eat more when eating
with others
• People tend to overeat “free
snack”
• The Garcia Effect-taste aversion
Culture and Hunger
neopohbiadislike of
things
unfamiliar
Hot cultures like hot spices
(more bacteria-inhibiting spices)
Dog
Mice Wine
Fried Frog Legs
Criadillas- bull testicles.
Eating Disorders
Bulimia Nervosa
• Characterized by
binging (eating large
amounts of food)
and purging (getting
rid of the food).
Anorexia Nervosa
• Starve themselves to below 85% of their
normal body weight.
• See themselves as fat.
• Vast majority are women.
Eating disorders
• Anorexia sufferers often have low self-evaluations,
perfectionist standards, expectations, and concerned
with how others perceive them
• Cultural and Gender components (genetics may
influence susceptibility)
• Western culture-weight-obsessed society
• African-plumpness signaled as having money and
being healthy (not having aids or being hungry)
Obesity
• Severely overweight
to the point where it
causes health issues.
• Mostly eating habits
but some people are
predisposed towards
obesity.
Click on the pictures to see
some case studies on obesity.
Obesity and Weight control
• WHO (2007) more than 1 billion people are
overweight and 300 million are obese
• Global epidemic of diabetes
• Obesity increases the risk of diabetes, high blood
pressure, heart disease, gallstones, arthritis, certain
cancers
• BMI-considers height as well
– Doesn’t consider metabolism, blood pressure, cholesterol
levels, or muscle mass
Social Effects of Obesity and the
Physiology of Obesity
• Gender and weight
discrimination in the
work place
• Lower psychological
well-being
• Size of fat cells increase
not number
• Dramatic drop in caloric
intake decrease
metabolism (body
adapts to starvation)
• Genes somewhat at
play: when to signal the
body that its full or how
efficiently we burn
calories
Food Facts and Weight Loss
• Social influence
• Sleep loss
• Lifestyle choices:
inactivity combined
with larger portions
• Set realistic goals
• Exercise regularly
• Keep junk food out of
the house
• Eat consistently
(healthy foods)
• Watch portions
(plates/bowls)
Sexual Motivation
• Sex is natural.
• Without sex, none of us
would be here.
• Less influenced by
biological and more
psychological and socialcultural factors
(compared to food)
• How do scientists (or
you) find out about sex?
YOU ASK!!!!!!
Mapped out the Sexual Response
Cycle
•
•
•
•
Initial Excitement
Plateau Phase
Orgasm
Resolution Phase
(with refractory
period).
Hormones and Sexual Behavior
• Sexual desire rises slightly at ovulation among
women with mates
• Both men and women secrete sex hormones but
men secrete more______________ and women
more_____________
• In men, testosterone levels have little effect on
sexual desire
• Biology is necessary but not sufficient explanation of
human sexual behavior
The Psychology of Sex
• External
– Sexual explicit material
(negative effects)
– Depictions of women
being sexually coerced
and enjoying tend to
increase viewer’s
acceptance of rape
– Devalue their own
partners
– Diminish their own
sexual satisifcation
• Imagine Stimuli
– The brain is the most
significant sex organ and
can influence sexual
arousal and desire
– Sexual fantasies are
healthy
Adolescent Sexuality
• 2005, 47% of high school
students acknowledge
having had sexual
intercourse
• Sex during teen years is
often unprotected
• Teen pregnancy: ignorance,
minimal communication of
birth control, guilt related to
sexual activity, alcohol use,
mass media norms of
unprotected promiscuity
• 2/3 of new STI’s occur
in people under 25
• Teens who delay
–
–
–
–
Higher intelligence
Religious engagement
Father presence
Participation in service
learning programs
Kinsey’s Studies
• Confidential interviews
with 18,000 people (in
early 1950’s).
• Sexual Behavior in the
Human Male and
Sexual Behavior in the
Human Female
• Scale of sexuality….0 to
6 where 0 is exclusively
heterosexual and 6
homosexual and 7 is
asexual.
Click on Kinsey to see the movie
trailer.
Masters and Johnson Study
• In the 1960’s William
Masters and Virginia
Johnson set out to
explore the physiology
of sex.
• 382 females and 312
males.
After their
research was
done they ran
an institute
that claimed to
turn gay people
straight.
Sexual Orientation
An enduring sexual attraction toward members of either
one's own gender or the other gender.
Most of today’s psychologists view sexual orientation as
neither willfully chose nor willfully changed
How is Sexual Orientation
Determined
• There has been NO
evidence that sexuality is
socially determined.
• Kids raised by gay
parents are no more
likely to be gay that if
they were raised by
hetero parents.
• This it is likely
biologically determined.
Origins of Sexual Orientation
• Homosexual people do appear more often in certain
populations or job occupations (poets, writers,
artists, musicians)
• Men who are right-handed and have older brothers
are somewhat more likely to be gay (fraternal birth
order effect)
– Blanchard suspects that with each male pregnancy, the
maternal antibodies may become stronger and prevent the
fetus’ brain from developing a male-typical pattern
• Same sex attraction in animals: grizzlies, gorillas,
monkeys, flamingos, and owls
The Brain
• Simon LeVay discovered that
there is a cluster of cells in the
hypothalamus that is larger in
heterosexual men than in
heterosexual women or
homosexual men.
• He believes it is more likely
that brain anatomy influences
sexual orienatation
• Gay men and straight women
have brain hemispheres of
similar size
Genes and Sexual Orientation
• Evidence does indicate a genetic influence on sexual
orientation
• Homosexuality appears to run in families
• Biological correlates of sexual orientation (page 358)
– Gay men spatial abilities resemble those of straight women
– Straight women and gay men outperform straight men at
remembering object’s spatial locations
Prenatal Environment
• Current research seems to
point to the hormonal levels
in the prenatal environment.
• Exposure to hormones in the
middle of the second and
fifth months after
conception appears to
predispose the person to be
attracted to males or
females later in life
• We have created homosexual
male fruit flies and lesbian
sheep!!!
The need to belong
• Wanting to belong
– What makes life meaningful? Family, friends, romantic
partners
– When we feel included, accepted, and loved by those
important to us, self-esteem rides high
– The need to belong feeds both deep attachments and
menacing threats
• Aiding survival
– Social bonds boosted our ancestors’ survival rate
The need to belong
• Sustaining relationships
– After separations, feelings of loneliness, anger, and desire to be near
the person lingers (relationship example)
– When something threatens our social ties, negative emotions (anxiety,
loneliness, jealousy, guilt) overwhelm us (college example)
• The pain of Ostracism (social exclusion)
– To experience ostracism is to experience real pain
• Triggers activity in the brain that activates real pain
– Rejected and unable to remedy the situation, people may turn to selfdefeating behavior, underperform on aptitude tests, less empathetic
for others, more likely to act in aggressive ways (school violence,
bullying example)
Achievement Motivation
What motivates us to work?
(School, job, sports, video games, relationships etc..)
Intrinsic Motivators
• Rewards we get
internally, such as
enjoyment or
satisfaction.
Extrinsic Motivators
• Reward that we get for
accomplishments from
outside ourselves (grades
or money or etc..)
• Work great in the short
run.
Achievement motivation
• Those with high
achievement motivation will
choose tasks that are
moderately difficult. Not
too hard because they want
to achieve. Not too easy
because they want to feel
good about themselves.
Where would one stand to
practice if they had high
achievement motivation?
Overjustification effect
Studies show that if you externally reward someone (excessively) for
something they love doing, they will lose their intrinsic desire for
doing it.
• Alex Rodriguez earns 27.5
million dollars per year.
Does he love the game??
Management Theory
Management/Teaching styles relate closely to
Intrinsic/Extrinsic Motivators.
Theory X
• Managers believes that
employees will work only if
rewarded with benefits or
threatened with punishment.
• Think employees are
Extrinsically Motivated.
• Only interested in Maslow’s
lower needs.
Theory Y
• Managers believe that
employees are internally
motivated to do good work
and policies should encourage
this internal motive.
• Interested in Maslow’s
higher needs.
When Motives Conflict
• Approach-approach conflict – when we
have 2 desirable things to choose from.
Both Beyonce and Tyra Banks want to
date you.
Approach –avoidance conflict
• Both options have their benefits and drawbacks.
Example, telling your wife that her hair looks bad. The
good is she’ll fix it. The bad is she might be mad at
you for a few hours.
Avoidance-avoidance conflict
• You must choose between 2 equally unattractive
options.
Four theories of emotion
James-Lange Theory of Emotion
• Willam James and Carl
Lange came up with the
James-Lange Theory
of Emotion.
• Based on our autonomic
nervous system
• The body changes and
our mind interprets
those changes as
emotion.
• “I’m afraid because I
run”
• Male participants were asked to meet
an interviewer in the middle of one of
two bridges. One was a safe-looking
bridge and one looked more dangerous.
An attractive female researcher
interviewed the male passers-by in the
middle of the two bridges. She gave
them her telephone number in case
they wanted to ask about the results.
Men on the less safe-looking bridge
were more aroused by the height of the
bridge, and were likely to confuse their
feelings for being 'lovestruck'. They
were then more likely to call her back,
looking for a date.
• Support for James Lange????
47
• Giving the Finger, the Psychology and
History Thereof By William Weir on February
13, 2009
• For the study, 54 right-handed subjects
read a story about a person whose
behavior could be interpreted as either
assertive or hostile. One group
extended their forefinger while
reading, another group extended their
middle finger. The latter group tended
to assert that person in the essay was
hostile, rather than assertive.
• Support for the James Lange theory??
48
Facial feedback hypothesis
49
The Effects of Facial Expression
If facial expressions are manipulated, like furrowing
brows, people feel sad while looking at sad pictures.
Courtesy of Louis Schake/ Michael Kausman/
The New York Times Pictures
Attaching two golf tees to the face and making their tips
touch causes the50brow to furrow.
Maybe Ned was right. Sometimes
we should force ourselves to smile.
Cannon-Bard Theory of Emotion
• Say JamesLange theory is
full of crap.
• The
physiological
change and
cognitive
awareness must
occur
simultaneously.
• They believed it
was the
thalamus that
helped this
happen.
Think – 2 cannons firing at the same
time.
Physiological change (heart rate, breathing)
Cognitive awareness
Two-Factor Theory of Emotion
• Stanley Schachter explains
emotions more completely
that the other two
theories.
• They happen at the same
time but…
• Emotion is processed in the
autonomic nervous system
AND the cerebral cortex
(conscious thought)
• Includes cognitive appraisal
• If you are in a falling vehicle heading toward the ground at
60 mph, your autonomic reaction would include heart
racing and screaming. But if your cognitive appraisal says
you are on a rollercoaster, then you have the emotion of
“fun”
Everyone say it loud
Schacter – Two
Factor
Opponent Process Theory of
Emotion
• Have you ever felt
crappy for a few days,
then felt elated? This
theory says feeling one
way will lead you to feel
the opposite.
• How is this similar to the
opponent process theory of
color vision?
Stress
• There are 2 stress
hormones you need
to know.
• Cortisol and
adrenaline
• Cortisol does lead to
weight gain.
Seyle’s General Adaptation Syndrome
• Describes our
response to a
stressful event.
• Three stages
1. Alarm
2. Resistance
3. Exhaustion
Emotional Expression
When culturally diverse people were shown six
basic facial expressions, they did fairly well at
recognizing them (Paul Ekman 1989).
Elkman & Matsumoto, Japanese and
Caucasian Facial Expression of Emotion
60
Izard (1977) isolated 10 emotions. Most of
them are present in infancy, except for contempt,
shame, and guilt. Even blind children display these
facial expressions.
Tom McCarthy/ Rainbow
Patrick Donehue/ Photo Researchers, Inc.
Bob Daemmrich/ The Image Works
Nancy Brown/ The Image Bank
Marc Grimberg/ The Image Bank
Michael Newman/ PhotoEdit
Lew Merrim/ Photo Researchers, Inc.
61
Paul Ekman – basis for Lie to Me
• Paul Ekman studied emotions and facial expressions and
found there are universal facial expressions. Lying and disgust
are the same in the USA and Japan.
• However, the display rules are different for collectivist
cultures than individualist cultures. Chinese are not
encouraged to display anger like Americans are.
62
Cognition Does Not Always Precede
Emotion
When fearful eyes were subliminally
presented to subjects, fMRI scans revealed
higher levels of activity in the amygdala
(Whalen et al. 2004).
Courtesy of Paul J. Whalen, PhD, Dartmouth
College, www.whalenlab.info
63
Catharsis Hypothesis
Venting anger through action or fantasy achieves
an emotional release or “catharsis.”
Expressing anger breeds more anger, and through
reinforcement it is habit-forming.
64
Cultural & Gender Differences
1.
2.
Boys respond to anger by moving away from that
situation, while girls talk to their friends or listen to
music.
The expression of anger is more encouraged in
individualistic cultures (USA) than in cultures that do
promote group behavior (China, Japan)
Wolfgang Kaehler
65
Predictors of Happiness
Why are some people generally more happy
than others?
66