CHAPTER: INSTRUCTIONAL DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS
Instructional Media Background ………………………………...
Instructional Design/Multimedia Learning Considerations ……
Instructional Media Learning Considerations…………………...
General Features of Learning Software ………………………….
Approach to Instructional Design ………………………………..
Methodologies ……………………………………………………...
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Background (Instructional Media)
Multimedia Definition: “Multimedia is the seamless integration of text, sound, images of all kinds and control
software within a single digital information environment (England & Finney, 1999).”
Instructional multimedia allows instructional strategies that were never possible in traditional settings. For example,
if a student is to be taught how to manage a bank he/she could be taught through a simulation which could give an
accurate and detailed tour or experience the components involved in running a bank. The student could make
adjustments and observe the predicted outcomes of the actions that he/she took. This type of experience could only
be produced in the actual event of running a bank. Therefore, through instructional media, students can be taught
certain complex tasks, skills, and techniques that become accurate representations of real applications applicable to
the content that they are learning. The potential of instructional media can seem limitless.
In terms of modern day students, adult, adolescent, and child, learning has become a more active experience. People
enjoy learning that is active because they are motivated by the activity itself and forget about the struggles that are
involved in the learning. From this view, expectations of the learning and of the way the material is taught have
changed.
"Current challenges in the educational settings are often related to changes in how the learning experience
is delivered, in who is delivering the learning experience, and in the role of the learner as a member of a
broader population. Radical changes have already taken place in the latter, and it is fair to say that new
pedagogical approaches are needed to cope with the arrival of a new generation of potential students, those
whom we can describe as the "play generation" rather than the "drill generation" (Guimaraes, Chambel,
Bidarra, 2000)."
Most modern day learners enjoy the “play” aspect that is afforded by multimedia activities. Flash cards for
repetitious learning have been replaced by more engaging multimedia activities. Digital technology is being used to
create new learning artefacts. Learner's involvement becomes active and conversational rather then passive
(Chang,1999). It is quite obvious that instructional multimedia is a feature that can benefit learning. It in no way is
the end-all solution to learning, but it can be a very powerful tool when used appropriately
The limitless aspect of instructional media can be dangerous (Fenrich, 1997). In many cases, instructional media can
become too media driven, by the inclusion of media components that are unnecessary, inappropriate, or ineffective
as compared to traditional learning methods. Although instructional media can function as a stand-alone tool to
teach and deliver information, under most circumstances, it should serve as a tool to supplement teaching rather than
a machine to replace teaching. It is probably best to choose multimedia applications that complement or supplement
particular areas that are to be taught and not the entire subject (Fenrich, 1997). It is from this view that most media
applications are developed.
Benefits of Instructional Media
Learner Benefits
One of the most beneficial aspects of instructional media afforded to the learner is the aspect of individual learning.
In terms of individual learning, instructional media can be beneficial by affording the individual learner to carry out
the following: (Fenrich, 1997)
 Work at their own pace, proceed when they are ready, control learning paths, review as necessary
 Learn form a patient tutor that can adapt instruction to individual abilities and backgrounds
 Become involved in active learning and receive immediate feedback
 Take part in evaluations through learning specific tests and quizzes
 Learn in a private manner, make many mistakes with little embarrassment
 Learn when convenient at any time
Individualized instruction is practical for students because:
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Individualized lessons promote an increase in learning and retention rates and overall success. (Increases up
to 50 percent are commonly reported)
Decreased learning time. (Time savings of up to 50 percent are common, along with increased attention and
time on-task)
Participation in instructional strategies that are not traditionally offered. (Simulations, games, tools and
more)
Alternative methods to learn.
Well-designed presentations allow more interaction.
Minimal peer competition with the emphasis on joy of learning and private scoring.
Higher motivation and more positive attitudes.
Instructor Benefits
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Instructional multimedia solutions (IMS) can replace ineffective or potentially dangerous learning activities
with simulations, animations, and games that are more effective.
IMS’s save time through reduced need for teaching. Savings in time can save money, increase student
contact time, provide higher instructor-to student ratio.
IMS can be used to teach repetitive and rather routine topics or skills, allowing instructors to focus their
teaching on material that continually changes.
Learning a new set of skills can become beneficial if the instructor will be involved in subsequent steps.
New methods bring excitement, innovations, and different routines.
Administrative Benefits
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Instructional multimedia is also beneficial to managers, because it can reduce costs in time saved training
employees.
Preserving Expertise.
Making Expertise Available.
Training local multimedia experts.
Encouraging personnel to use computers and technology as tools.
A business can offset instructional multimedia costs in many ways:
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Selling the product
Using the multimedia hardware for other applications
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Learning Considerations for Instructional Design and Multimedia
Instructional Computing
In the view of learning, we must understand that there are many tools that enhance or aid in learning. One such tool
is the computer. Although its use has increased over the years, the computer is strictly a tool. Because of this, the
computer and its use in instruction must be understood at all levels of detail. From hardware considerations to
software considerations, instruction using the computer is still developing. A statement that puts the use of the
computer in instruction is put forth by (Alessi & Trollip, 2000):
“The current state of instructional computing is still in flux, with users facing issues of software and
hardware incompatibility, as well as a lack of excellent and effective educational software. Two factors,
hinder the success of instructional computing; a shortage of people skilled in developing quality
courseware (which has resulted in much low-quality courseware) and disagreement within the field on how
computers should be used in education. The availability of multimedia capabilities on so many computers
has further confused the issues because many designers and developers believe that just adding multimedia
elements makes software instructionally effective.”
With these considerations in mind, developers and instructors must decide when to use the computer as a tool for
learning. Because different media have different advantages, it is best to use the computer when it is likely to be
beneficial to the learning process (Alessi & Trollip, 2000). The computer is most likely to be beneficial under the
following conditions:
Condition
Cost
Safety
Nature of material is difficult to teach
Learner Motivation is lacking
Logistic difficulties exist
Special needs of learner
Example
Science Instruction
Chemistry Labs, Industrial Hazards
Graphing or simulations of complex systems
Ancient Histroy, Grammar, Vocabulary
Addressing large groups of people, material is difficult to get
first-hand (historical archives, science archives)
Learning disabilities or handicaps
Instruction Definition
Instruction is a general term that describes the teaching and presentation of material or techniques that the learner is
to become familiar with and eventually master. Instruction occurs any time a person is to learn something new or
improve on his or her current knowledge of a subject or task. The instructional process occurs in four phases (Alessi
& Trollip, 2000).
Four Phases of Instruction
1.
2.
3.
4.
Presenting of Information
Guiding the Learner
Practicing
Assessing the Learning
Presenting Information
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The information or knowledge that is to be learned has to be presented in one form or another. This does not
necessarily mean that knowledge is presented in a traditional sense, but can occur through discovery or self-guided
learning. The ways in which the material is typically presented occurs in the form of examples, rules, or pictures. If
skills are to be presented, they may be presented in the form of modeling, where the instructor or coach actually
performs the skill(s) to be learned. Once again, the way in which the information is presented can take many forms:
human aided or guided, computer aided or guided. When information is presented in the form of examples this is
considered demonstration. Whether the presentation of information occurs through discovery, modeling, or
demonstration, the medium by which it is presented can take many forms through many different mediums (Alessi
& Trollip, 2000).
Guiding the Learner
The guidance phase of the instruction cycle is more interactive. It is during this phase that the learner becomes
familiar with the information that is to be learned. It is during this phase that interaction comes into play. Guidance
through learning is important because no one learner understands or comprehends everything upon initial exposure.
True learning involves making mistakes and errors, which must be corrected through the guiding process.
The guiding process can include discovery learning where learners discover principles or develop skills
through experimentation (Alessi & Trollip, 2000). The guiding process can also be carried out through learner
inquiry, such as in science experiments. This type of guidance is very effective under certain conditions (Alessi &
Trollip, 2000). Most instruction, however, uses a model that begins with the presentation of information as more
efficient and demonstrably more successful (Klausmeier & Feldman, 1975, Koran, 1971; Merrill, 1974).
Where discovery is used for guiding the learner, it is stressed that it be guided rather than free discovery.
The reason for this is the issue of accuracy in learning the information. If the learner makes mistakes, those mistakes
have to be made apparent so that the end product of the learning is accurate perception or mastery of the knowledge,
skill or technique.
Practicing
The practice phase of the instruction cycle involves mastering of the information. It is during this phase that the
learner gains ownership in his or her knowledge of the material and begins to perfect their knowledge. This phase is
important because learners should be able to perform quickly and fluently, sometimes under conditions or
circumstances of distraction, with few or no errors (Alessi & Trollip, 2000). Since we want to permanently maintain
the information that we learn, it is through practice that we can further ensure that the material stays with us for a
long period of time. Through practice, not only are speed and fluency enhanced, but also retention (Alessi & Trollip,
2000).
Assessing the Learning
How can the learner, instructor, or instructional medium verify that learning has occurred, and that it has occurred to
the point of mastery necessary for success with the particular information? This is where the assessment phase of the
instructional cycle comes into play. Learning should be assessed through testing or rubrics (Alessi & Trollip, 2000).
Not only should learning be assessed, but the assessment should be used as a tool to guide instructional decisions. In
doing so, the type of instruction as a function of type of learner can be determined.
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Methodologies for Facilitating Learning
The computer can be used as a tool to address presentation of information, guidance of learning, practice,
assessment, or a combination of the four (Alessi & Trollip, 2000). When the computer is responsible for the
complete learning or total learning, then the instructional medium must include all four of the instructional phases.
There exists eight methodologies that can be used in facilitating learning through the use of the computer. They are
as follows:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
Tutorials
Hypermedia
Drills
Simulations
Games
Tools/open-ended learning environments
Tests
Web-based learning
Methodologies Analysis Table (Alessi & Trollip, 2000)
Methodology
Tutorials
Hypermedia
Drills
Simulations
Games
Tools &
Open-ended learning
environments
Tests
Web-based learning
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Description/Characterization of use
 Presentation and guided practice phases of instruction
 Present info. and guide learner
 Presenting Information
 Open-ended (constructivist learning experience)
 Less structured than tutorials
 Practice phase of instruction
 Repetitive practice of material
 Drill/Game methodologies combined for motivational purposes
 More complex
 Presentation, guidance, practice, assessment
 Rare for it to provide all 4 phases of instruction
 Combined with game methodologies for discovery learning
purposes
 Combined with drills or simulations
 Used in practice of repetitive information in non-repetitive
manner
 Discovery learning
 Integration of learning across content areas (adventure game)
 Supports phase 3 (practice)
 Rarely used for assessment or guidance, can, however, be done
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Learners use in conjunction to other media activities
Open-ended, flexible
Graphics tools/math tools most common
May be part of any of the learning phase
Support Exploration
Used for obtaining or creating knowledge
Practice and application of new knowledge
Phase 4 (assessment)
With exception of practice test or quiz, which are used in practice
phase
Used with any methodologies
Typically a delivery medium
Used for any of the four instruction phases
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Methodology Summary
Many lessons used in instructional media combine methodologies to enhance learning. In fact, it is rare for only one
program to use only one methodology. Before analyzing methodologies of interactive media we must first discuss
different theories of learning that underlie all instruction and learning environments. Because of this, interactive
multimedia must be built on sound human factors to be effective (Alessi & Trollip, 2000).
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Learning Considerations for Instructional Media
Principles of Human Learning
Instruction is the application of basic learning principles (Alessi & Trollip, 2000), and it is through instruction that
learning occurs. The definition of learning and the processes necessary for learning approaches are very theoretical
and difficult to explain, measure and predict. We know that learning is a definite concept, but to actually measure,
predict, alter, and enhance learning, is difficult. This is in part due to the elements that we measure to mark the
accomplishment of learning. It is difficult to measure learning objectively, and therefore, there are many different
theories as to just exactly what learning is and how it occurs.
Modern learning theory is influenced by constructivist philosophy (Alessi & Trollip, 2000). Under this
philosophy, everyone constructs their own version of reality. Learners are active creators of knowledge and lerning
occurs by obsreving, manipulating, interpreting, and classifying the world around them (Alessi & Trollip, 2000).
Although this is the modern philosophy that describes how people learn, it is not the only one, nor is it the only
correct one. "Majority of learning psychologists, educators, and instructional designers prefer to merge various
principles of behavioral, cognitive, and constructivist paradigms into one integrated approach (Alessi & Trollip,
2000)." The reason that we must study and understand the principles of learning is that these principles are essential
to understanding how multimedia should be used to design effective educational materials (Alessi & Trollip, 2000).
Behavioral Psychology
Behavioral psychology was one of the first attempts to study how humans and animals learn. It is through behavioral
psychology that our first principles of learning arose. Of these principles are classical conditioning and operant
conditioning. Classical conditioning results from pairing a neutral stimulus with natural stimulus to elicit a response.
Humans learn many behaviors because of classical conditioning. Operant conditioning is the process of using
rewards and punishments to modify behavior (Alessi & Trollip, 2000). It was through the work of B.F. Skinner that
much of our understanding of conditioning came about. Skinner made the following discoveries that apply to
behavior and learning:
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4.
5.
6.
Behavior that is followed by positive reinforcement increases frequency.
Behavior that is followed by removal of negative environmental factors (negative
reinforcement) also increases frequency (Ormrod, 1995).
Behavior followed by punishment decreases frequency.
Behavior that was previously increased in frequency through reinforcement is no longer
reinforced, it decreases in frequency (extinction).
Behavior that is always rewarded and is no longer rewarded decreases rapidly.
Intermittent reinforcement behavior does not decrease rapidly when reinforcement ceases.
Instructional Systems Design
Discoveries provided by behavioral psychology have allowed for fundamental learning principles to be applied and
integrated into human learning principles. Of these applications was the Instructional Systems Design (ISD)
approach to instruction. This was an approach to developing instruction (Alessi & Trollip, 2000), that was used in
industry and military. The overall concept of ISD was the analysis of content in terms of:
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Defining overall learning objectives
Delineation of sequences/subsequences of curriculum
Selection of instructional methods/media
Designing delivery systems for individual lessons
Evaluation of lessons and entire instructional system
The ISD emphasizes measurement of observable and target behaviors (Alessi & Trollip, 2000). Because of this,
there are several downfalls of the ISD approach. (Alessi & Trollip, 2000) state that the ISD model suffers in the
following areas:
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Complexity
Provides direction at global angle
Does not provide direction at micro level
Behavioral Emphasis
Ignores unobservable learning aspects (thinking, reflection, memory, motivation)
Ignores unintended outcomes
Too much emphasis placed on instructor/instructional materials, too little on learner
One positive aspect of the ISD model is that it is designed to teach intended learning outcomes that are measurable.
Cognitive Psychology Principles
After its successive use in human learning, behavioral psychology lost its effectiveness in its application to human
learning. The development of cognitive psychology was later developed to explain human learning. Cognitive
psychology deals with studying a process known as cognition which is the process of knowing. This process
emphasizes unobservable constructs such as mind, memory, attitudes, motivation, thinking, and reflection. (Alessi &
Trollip, 2000). There are several approaches to designing instruction that have come about from cognitive
psychology.
Information Processing Approach
When people learn new information, the learned information must be stored (Ormrod, 1995). This process is
explained by the information processing approach. Under this theory, it is thought that information is stored in short
term memory and that the information in short term memory must be used or organized so that it can become
permanently stored in long term memory (Alessi & Trollip, 2000). It is also thought that memory and thinking have
a limited capacity. If this is true, then facilitating learning is related to the ability of a learner to organize and store
new information.
Semantic Networks
A second theory describing the learning process in a cognitive way is the theory of semantic networks. This theory
comes from research in neuroscience. It is known that each brain cell is connected to many other brain cells in an
array or network. Wherever the actual information resides in the brain is referred to as a node and these nodes are
hypothesized to be connected to many other pieces of information. Collectively, these connections form the
semantic network, the interconnected information of the brain. It is also thought that the information nodes are
connected by links or relationships that are characterized by similarity, opposition, cause/effect, and time (Alessi &
Trollip, 2000).
There are billions of connections between billions of cells. Theoretically, knowledge consists of nodes connected in
many ways. Cognitive activity such as remembering, thinking, acting, problem-solving, consists of information
nodes being activated via connections to other links or nodes which activate other information. Under this model,
learning involves the addition of links between nodes or by the alteration of nodes. Prior knowledge is crucial
because learning is the incorporation of new knowledge into the network of prior knowledge through assimilation,
accommodation, or both (Ormrod, 1995).
Schema Theory
The schema theory for learning is very similar to the semantic network model. Schema are the highly organized
information collections and their relationships. The knowledge that already exists is thought to occur as a schema.
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New knowledge can be modified to be incorporated with new information or schemas that can be modified to
accommodate the new knowledge, or some of both may occur (Alessi & Trollip, 2000).
Multimedia Considerations of Cognitive Psychology
The areas of cognitive science that are most important to multimedia design are those relating to perception,
attention, information encoding, memory, comprehension, active learning, motivation, locus of control, mental
modes, metacognition, transfer of learning, and individual differences (Alessi & Trollip, 2000).
Perception/Attention
Learning begins with attention and perception of information in the learning environment. Perception is constantly
affected by competing stimuli. Attention may be affected by different stimuli which is desired or non desired. There
are three basic principles for perception and attention. Each of these principles has multimedia design considerations
that can affect or enhance the desired effect. Although there are many considerations regarding attention one rule of
thumb is that attention should be attracted early in lesson and maintained throughout lesson (Alessi & Trollip, 2000).
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3.
Information (video/aural) should be easy to receive.
The position of information (spatial/temporal) affects attention to and perception.
Differences and changes attract and maintain attention.
I. Size and fonts used for text
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Color, size, level of detail used in pictures
Volume. Clarity of audio
Repeatability
Pace
II. Position of Information
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Spatial for video, temporal for audio
Placement (important info is central to screen)
Timing
Ability to repeat aural elements can improve learning by increasing accessibility
III. Differences and Changes
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Various text sizes, colors, fonts
Changing backgrounds and music
Dynamic techniques - animation and motion video
Attention is drawn to change (dynamic or periodic)
Human factors affecting attention:
 Level of involvement in lesson
 Personal interest in topic
 Prior knowledge about topic
 Difficulty in Lesson
 Novelty/Familiarity of information
Encoding
After stimuliis perceived, psychologists state that it must be encoded. This involves the transfer of stimuli into a
memorable format for storage in the brain.
Factors affecting encoding :
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Format of information (English or Spanish)
Medium of the information (Visual or aural)
Interrelationships of different information elements
Two theories are particularly of interest to multimedia applications and instructional design. Both relate to the
processes involved with the encoding process.
Dual Coding Theory
Dual Coding Theory describes how learning is enhanced when complimentary information codes are received
simultaneously (Alessi & Trollip, 2000). An example of this would be a weather report, where the presentation
involves showing of weather maps, along with an auditory description of the map. This duality of information
presentation can aid in learning because it makes the information easier to perceive, attend to and encode. "Learning
is best facilitated by a combination of complimentary visual and auditory information (Alessi & Trollip, 2000)."
Multimedia Effect
This theory is very similar to the dual coding theory. The multimedia effect describes or characterizes the benefits of
combining different and aural information through the use of multimedia. Multimedia programs that include text,
speech, drawings, photographs, music, animations, and video with or without sound can enhance learning. Some
combinations compliment each other, while others impede and conflict the learning (Alessi & Trollip, 2000) by
distracting the learner from the task at hand.
Multiple Symbol Systems
The idea of multiple symbol systems is best described using a mathematics example. If a student is to study the
following equation x2 + 2x + 3 = 0, and understand it to a level of detail where he or she could compare the
relationship to another, the multiple symbol system may aid in the learning. To study this relationship, the student
could explore the relationship graphically. He or she could then compare this graph to another graphed equation and
make more sense of it graphically than just comparing the two equations.
A second example of multiple symbols systems occurs in chemistry. Students are expected to know and understand
chemical compounds and reactions at three different levels: symbolically (H2O),
structurally, H-O-H, and three dimensionally.
It is through multiple systems that learners can reinforce their understanding of the information that they are to learn.
Not all information can be studied in a multiple symbol system, but multimedia lends itself to aiding the instruction
of material that can be in the form of a multiple symbol system.
Memory
After perceiving and encoding information, it is necessary to recall on that information at a later time. There has
been much research on memory in hopes that by knowing how the memory structures of humans operates, memory
can be improved. This is of particular interest to multimedia and instructional design. Instructional designers want to
develop multimedia applications that are consistent with our current understanding of memory. There are two
principles for enhancing memory: Principles of Organization and Principles of Repetition.
Principles of Organization
"Information is remembered better and longer when it is organized, when organization is imposed upon it, or when
the learner is made aware of the organization (Alessi & Trollip, 2000)." This is best demonstrated by the teachings
of foreign language where students are to memorize vocabulary. The point here is to decide which approach is best
to learning vocabulary. It turns out that when the vocabulary words are organized, rather than arbitrary, the students
learn them more rapidly, more perfectly, and for a longer period of time (Alessi & Trollip, 2000). An example of
how the vocabulary words might be organized is by category (foods, people, objects) or some other scheme that is
logical to the student.
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A second technique for memory is the idea of mneumonics. For example, HOMES for memorizing the great lakes.
Mneumonics may take the form of analogies, songs or algorithms such as red sky in morning, sailors take warning,
red sky at nigh, sailors delight. A common mneumonic used in chemistry is one used to describe the diatomic gases,
"BrINClHOF".
Principles of Repetition
The more that information is practiced or used, the better and longer the information is remembered. This is evident
by learning tools such as flash cards, the read, write, rehearse activity, classroom recitation and quizzes. These
techniques are very common and are very useful for information that has no inherent organization.
Of the two principles on memory, the organization principle is the most effective of the two. However, it is not
always possible to organize information. During these situations, repetitive learning of information is necessary. It
must also be pointed out that memory is affected by several factors such as relevance of information, and
motivation, and that each person has their own strategies or techniques for memory. A quote that best describes this
process is "remembering new information is difficult when information is not relevant or the learner is not
motivated. On the other hand, a highly motivated learner presented with relevant information can learn under almost
any circumstance (Alessi & Trollip, 2000)."
Comprehension
We must not only be able to attend to, perceive, interpret, and incorporate into memory important information, but
we must also be able to call upon the information that we have learned. When calling on this information, we must
be able to apply, categorize, discuss, evaluate, manipulate, and teach the information that we have learned (Alessi &
Trollip, 2000). This process is known as comprehension. It is a process that becomes very important in learning.
Once again here, however, we must stress that this process too is affected by motivation.
Reading comprehension can be affected by the complexity of the material and the relevance of the material. In either
case, comprehension involves more than just memorizing words and informational concepts. To comprehend
information, we must be able to differentiate between factual examples and concepts to the point of ownership or
self expression of the meaning of a concept. Comprehension can be verbal, in the case of relating information in
your own words, or explaining to someone else what you have learned. Comprehension can also be conceptual, in
the case of being able to distinguish examples and non-examples of the information that is being learned. The
comprehension of information can also be rule or principle oriented. In this case, knowing when to apply the
information and demonstrating the correct application of the information is a type of comprehension.
By selecting and designing appropriate interaction for a lesson, comprehension can be enhanced. This approach is
more effective than designing lessons that are based on strict recall or retrieval of information (Alessi & Trollip,
2000).
Active Learning
Learning occurs by not only observing but also by doing. The familiar statement "I hear and I forget, I see and I
remember, I do and I understand" says much about human learning. When a learner can actually "do" or carry out
the feature that they are learning, then they demonstrate competency in their knowledge. Allowing the users to "act"
in learning is one of the most important features of interactive media. The famous saying "To teach is to learn twice"
also brings about the importance of actively engaging in the learning process. Because interactive media allows
users to "act" in their learning, there are many opportunities to develop courseware that utilizes the concept of active
learning. However, much commercial courseware falls short in this regard. This is in part due to the difficulty
associated with designing interactions that are frequent, relevant, interesting, and have appropriate level of difficulty
(Alessi & Trollip, 2000).
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Computer interactions primarily consist of typing, and mouse-driven actions. This type of interaction is very
different than the interaction that occurs between humans. Human-Human interaction is much more complex and
includes speaking, listening, arguing, touching, motioning, and facial expressions.
Choosing actions to facilitate learning goals should go beyond human-computer interactions and include humanhuman, human to computer to human interaction, human to paper, and human to equipment (Alessi & Trollip,
2000).
Gavora & Hannafin, 1995 offer a guide to designing activities that are interactive. Interactive activities depend on:
1.
2.
3.
4.
Whether responses are primarily physical or mental actions
How much mental or physical effort the responses require
Whether physical or mental actions are automatic or must be intentional
The extent to which the actions support the tasks and knowledge to be learned
A balance of these factors should be achieved in designing active learning (Alessi & Trollip, 2000).
Motivation
There are several theories on motivation. The two most accepted or most popular theories on human motivation are
from Malone & Lepper, and from Keller. Both theories describe ways in which intrinsic and extrinsic motivation
can be affected. According to both Malone's and Lepper's theories, people are motivated in one of two ways;
intrinsically or extrinsically. Intrinsic motivators are elements within people that influence them or motivate them.
Examples of these are pride, self-worth, and other sometimes immeasurable features that influence us and motivate
us. Extrinsic motivators are elements that are on the outside. Features such as these are grades, praise, money, or
other rewards (Ormrod, 1995).
Malone's Motivation Theory
There are four factors that influence intrinsic motivation: challenge, curiosity, control, and fantasy. The more a
program includes the four elements, the more successful learning is because people enjoy it more.
Motivation Element
Challenge
Curiosity (sensory)
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Requirements
 Challenge level should be individualized
 Lesson should not be too easy or too difficult
 Challenging goals should be set at beginning of lesson
 Maintain challenge by varying difficulty of material as learner performance
improves
 Curiosity is instigated by visual or auditory effects
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Curiosity (cognitive)
Control
Contingency
Choice
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Aroused by information that enforces, conflicts, or contradicts with learners
current knowledge structures
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Outcome of lesson is directly related to learner's actions and responses
Lessons that have specific feedback and respond to learner performance

Learner should be permitted to select learning sequence (difficulty, learning
type)
Encourages procedures (menus, global branching options)

Power
Fantasy






Learners actions should have powerful affects on learning environment
Environments where learner creates computer programs or graphics programs
Games, virtual reality, 3-dimensional, excellent graphic requirements
Encourage learners to imagine themselves vicariously involved in the
experience or metaphor
Brings relevance to content of material through the vicarious experience
Games, simulations
Lepper's Motivation Theory
According to Lepper's research, extrinsic motivators diminish user interest in learning because the goal becomes the
reward rather than the learning itself. Research suggests, however, that extrinsic motivators can aid in motivating
students to learn. Under Lepper's theory, intrinsic motivators are inherent in the instruction. Learning is intrinsically
motivating if learners consider it enjoyable or "fun". According to Lepper, motivational techniques must be
individualized because each learner is motivated differently. The following techniques are suggested to enhance
intrinsic motivation.
Techniques that enhance intrinsic motivation (Alessi & Trollip, 2000):







Use of game techniques
Use embellishments such as visual techniques to increase learner interest of work and attention and to
encourage deeper cognitive processing
Use exploratory experiments
Give learner personal control
Challenge learner
Arouse learners curiosity
Give encouragement, even when errors are made
Keller's ARCS Motivation Theory
According to Keller, the instructional designer must be proficient at motivation design as well as instructional design
and content design if he or she is to develop effective learning courseware. Under the Keller Motivation Theory, the
learner is particularly motivated by four factors which he calls "ARCS", Attention, Relevance, Confidence, and
Satisfaction.
Motivational Factor
Attention
Relevance
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Instructional Design Considerations
 Capture early, maintain throughout in lesson
 Use curiosity to capture/maintain attention
 Perceptual and content variety maintains
attention
 Demonstrate that learning is useful/important
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
Use of content examples that are of interest or
important
Incorporation/integration of real-world
applications
Make clear expectations
Provide clear opportunities for success
Allow for personal control
Enable users to apply what they have learned in
real and useful ways
Positive consequences following successful
progress
Encouragement during difficult times
Fair through:
 Consistency
 Activities meet objectives
 Intelligent/consistent learner
action/evaluation

Confidence
Satisfaction







Motivation Summary:
Motivation as a measurable event, is rather subjective, abstract, and idealogical. However, we do know that
something exists within humans that influences us to act in particular ways and to attend to particular stimuli. We
also know that we can influence the ways that we attend and stay attended to particular stimuli. Three theories have
related human motivation to instructional design considerations used in developing effective learning courseware.
There are differences between all of these theories, yet they share many common features. In designing effective
courseware it is probably best to consider all of these theories in a complete manner so that the instructional design
considers the motivational factor in learning.
Although many of the motivational theories apply to many people, we must continue to reemphasize that multimedia
applications must keep the learner in mind. By this, we mean that we can not jeopardize good learning at the
expense of excessive/inexcessive motivation. In designing multimedia applications use moderation with motivated
techniques (Alessi & Trollip, 2000). Too much learner control may allow the user to make poor or misguided
decisions that hinder learning. Instructional design is a compromise, not only in motivation, but all elements that
may affect learning.
Locus of Control
The learner, program, or a combination of the two can be used to control sequence, content, methodology, and other
instructional factors (Fenrich, 1997). Obviously there are two extremes in this regard. The reason to consider this
balance in instructional design is because research has shown that the proper balance can enhance or hinder learning
depending on the balance chosen with respect to the type of learner and the type of material. For example, evidence
shows that highly achieving learners benefit from greater learner control over the environment, where as lower
achieving learners benefit from a more controlled environment. Differences have been shown for different ages as
well (Alessi & Trollip, 2000). The instructional design should have a locus of control feature that determines which
aspects are learner controlled such as pacing, reviewing, requesting help, and which aspects are program controlled
such as instructional settings, difficulty setting, assessment and mastery decisions.
Mental Modes (Schar, 2000)
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Mental modes are the constructs that can be called upon to solve processes and answer questions. For example,
mental modes are necessary in solving a multiplication problem, predicting an event, and understanding a system.
Many psychologists feel mental modes are necessary for learning knowledge. They believe that when learners are to
understand complex skills or phenomena, the formation of mental modes is a fundamental component. Learners do
not develop mental modes spontaneously. It is thought that mental modes may be skill oriented, and that certain
people are more qualified than others at this skill. In terms of a skill, people can be trained at improving their mental
mode.
How do we integrate interaction processes, authoring approaches and rich elements of hypermedia in order to
improve the effectiveness of a learner centered educational environment? How do we design for this medium?
Experiential learning
"Cognition and learning theories play a fundamental role in the design of the proposed environment. The most
relevant notions are the cognitive styles and modes, the structure of learning processes, the exploration of cognitive
mapping tools, and the impact of rich media (Schar, 2000)."
Cognitive Styles and modes
It has been stated that all students have a mixture of four basic learning styles:




Reflector
Pragamatist
Theorist
Activist




Experiential
Reflective
Associated with automatic and controlled
Experiential and productive
"Expriential and reflective modes do not capture all the thought, nor are they completely independent, but
seem to define the spectrum of our interaction with technological artefacts. Both modes are essential for
human performance, but require very different technological support. Many tools fail by providing
reflective support for experiential situations, or experiential support for reflective situations (Schar, 2000)."
Learning Styles



Reflector (observation)
Pragmatist (engaging in practical applications)
Theorist (Abstract conceptualization)
Learning Processes (phases)



"classic" learner controlled pedagogy
Initial conceptualization of subject/domain
Construction-learner actively engages with subject
Dialogue- emerging understanding
Cognitive mapping

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Bridges experiential activity of a learner and the reflective process
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Rich Media Learning




Integration of audio-visual information with the learner's knowledge structure facilitates retention and
retrieval
"Training learners to transform complex visual images can provide an important link between visual and
verbal storage retrieval."
"One of video's greatest strengths is the power to generate attitudes and emosions as no other medium can"
"It is an excellent tool for displaying affective information"
Understanding the concept of mental modes can improve the instructional design of interactive multimedia.
Conceptual models or diagrams of learning or information have been suggested as ways to improve learning.
Instructional media has great potential for the development of material that includes conceptual models, diagrams,
and graphical explanations to map learning. The ways that instructional multimedia can incorporate mental modes is
through computer diagrams, animations, and video presentations.
Metacognition
Metacognition refers to the learner's awareness of his or her learning. Many people are well aware of where they are
in terms of their learning, while others are not or choose not. High achievers have good metacognition as well as
cognition (Alessi & Trollip, 2000). However, there is no relation between cognitive abilities high or low and
metacognitive ability high or low. Metacognition is an important consideration in instructional design, because users
should have an accurate perception of their experience and success in using instructional media. Learners can be
grouped into four categories in terms of their metacognition/cognition ability:
1.
2.
3.
4.
Learners high in metacognition and high in cognition
Learners low in metacognition and low in cognition
Learners low in metacognition and high in cognition
Learners high in metacognition and low in cognition
Designers and teachers need to pay as much attention to the learner's metacognition as they do to the learner's
cognition (Alessi & Trollip, 2000). It can be difficult to aid the learner in this regard, because metacognition is
difficult to measure. However, most common approaches are general self-awareness of one's own knowledge and
abilities, reflection, and self assessment.
Metagognitive considerations of Multimedia Design:




Reminders to stop and reflect
Assistance with self-assessment
Working with partner
Practice activities for development of metacognitive skills
Research has shown that learning skills in metacognition is not content specific (Alessi & Trollip, 2000). Therefore,
metacognitive techniques taught and used in one content area may be transferred over to other areas.
Transfer of Learning
Transfer of learning refers to the extent to which performance in one situation is reflected in another. For example,
students that are studying the chemical elements should be able to transfer this knowledge or learning to other
applications such as writing chemical formulas. There are two types of learning transfer: near transfer and far
transfer. Near transfer is applying learned information or skills in a new-environment that is similar to the
environment where the original learning took place. Far transfer is applying learned information or skills in a new
environment that is much different.
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Multimedia techniques that facilitate transfer of learning are simulations, case-based learning, collabrative learning.
Transfer of learning for near transfer can be enhanced by having similar elements within the instructional
environment. Transfer of learning for far transfer can be enhanced by building variation into the instructional
environment. This facilitates a generalizing effect between stimuli and responses (Alessi & Trollip).
Individual Differences
Everyone learns at a different pace and in different ways. Because of this instructional methods should be learner
specific. Interactive multimedia is advantageous in its ability to individualize the learning experience. However, this
is not fully taken advantage of and when it is it is difficult to maintain. Good software adapts to the individual
learner, utilizing their talents, giving necessary help, providing motivators that learners can respond to. Matching
learning styles with appropriate methodologies is important. This is made possible by continual assessment of
individual differences so that the right match is made.
Individual Difference
Reading vs. Listening Skills
Multimedia Considerations
 Provide alternatives of text vs. speech for
verbal presentations
 Difference may be due to:
 Age
 Educational background
 Ability level
 Personal preference (text/listening)
 Nationality
Learning Style
Cognitive Style
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Working with others/alone
Hypermedia (open-ended vs structured)
Multimedia Application Domains (Adapted from Fenrich, 1997)
Verbal Information

Learners must give specific responses to specific stimuli. This is typically carried out by remembering and
recalling information.

Learners give one specific response for each question.

Tests questions are of a common type (e.g., paraphrases, multiple choice, true false, etc.).

Learners do not conduct symbolic manipulation.

Learners need to gain verbal information before they can move on to higher level applications.

Experts can supply verbal information
Intellectual Skills

Learners need to think, and their participation must extend beyond simple memory recall, and restatement.

Application may accommodate more than one way to answer a question.

Learners can complete symbolic manipulation.

Intellectual skills can be classified into six categories:
1. Discriminations
2. Concrete concepts
3. Defined concepts
4. Rules
5. Higher-order rules
6. Cognitive strategies
Discriminations
Relatively low-level intellectual skills where learners simply point out differences and do not specifically describe
the differences. Examples of discriminations are:


Discriminate between a male and female fish.
Discriminate between a rock song and a country song.
Concrete Concepts
Concrete concepts are more intellectually advanced than discriminations in that they involve specifically listing and
noting differences that exist between two concrete entities. Examples of concrete concepts are as follows:


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Identify, by pointing on the screen the different parts of an internal combustion engine.
Indicate which compound contains calcium, and which contains nitrate.
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Defined Concepts
Defined concepts involve the classification of the differences or similarities that exist between and among objects.
Examples of defined concepts are as follows:


Classify the following compounds as acids and bases.
Classify a mixture, element, and compound.
Rules
Rules combine concepts. They tend to be collections of similarities or differences that classify objects. Examples of
rules are:


Correctly name binary compounds, polyatomic compounds.
Correctly write the chemical reaction that occurs between hydrogen gas and oxygen to produce water.
Higher-Order Rules
Higher-Order rules must require the student to use a collection of rules that apply to a particular object. An example
of this would be:


Using your definition of a lewis acid, Bronsted-Lowry Acid, and Arrhenius Acid, classify the following
compounds.
Use your definition of plant, animal, and bacterial cell to classify the following slides.
Cognitive Strategies
Cognitive strategies require the learner to perform an original or creative act. This may involve the learner to create
their own definition for a particular phenomenon or occurrence that they have studied. Examples of cognitive
strategies are:



Design a multimedia simulation that…
Create a set of standards for the different types of chemical reactions.
Judge the significance of the first law of thermodynamics.
Psychomotor Skills
The mastery of psychomotor skills involves the use of muscular actions to achieve something. These skills extend
beyond a simple mouse click or key stroke. For example, manipulation of objects in a virtual reality simulation for
surgery involve psychomotor skills. Examples of learning outcomes using psychomotor domains are as follows:




For an editing decision, list an editing suite, and make a master videotape from a set of source tapes
Using a graphics editor, construct a diagram of the heart.
Arrange a set of parts into …
Play a melody on a guitar.
Attitude
Attitudes are skills that reflect people’s tendencies to make decisions or choices under certain conditions. Attitudes
can challenge measurement techniques for several reasons. A person may not be able to effectively demonstrate
their mastery in a give skill because it is not possible to carry the skill out at that given time. For example a
particular aspect of driving may have been understood by the student, but they can not demonstrate this skill until
they actually get behind the wheel. Secondly, some skill may be carried over into other skill domains. For example,
on student lab safety the student is instructed to wear safety goggles. The actual demonstration of this task would
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involve psychomotor domains. Because attitudes are difficult to define, measure, and predict, flexibility must exist
in applications to accommodate for unforeseen inconsistencies. Examples of learning outcomes involving attitude
domains are as follows:



The learner will choose to follow the systematic instructional design process
The learner will decide to involve a team when creating multimedia products
The learner will prefer hip-hop music over classical music.
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General Features of Software for Learning
According to Alessi & Trollip, 2000, there are five instructional factors that are common to all interactive
multimedia. Those factors are:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
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Introduction of the program
Learner control
Presentation of information
Providing help
Ending a program
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The following summary specifically lists the elements that should be considered when incorporating each of the
prescribed five instructional media factors (Alessi & Trollip, 2000).
SUMMARY OF GENERAL FEATURES
INTRODUCTION
Short title page
Clear and concise directions
User Identification
LEARNER CONTROL
Use mouse whenever possible
Use keyboard input for expert users
Use buttons for global controls and frequent actions
Use menus for global controls
Provide controls that are obvious and easy to use
Use complete button behaviors (rollover, cursor changes, state changes)
Provide consistent position, appearance, and function in controls
Design controls in accordance with users and content
Make controls and directions for them visible when available
PRESENTATION OF INFORMATION
Consistent
Use presentation modes appropriately (e.g., text, sound, video).
Text should be lean, clear, well formatted, and at appropriate reading level
Use graphics and video for important information
Video should be short and controllable
Use speech to catch attention, give directions, and facilitate dual coding
Use color consistently and sparingly
Maintain good color contrasts between foreground and background
PROVIDING HELP
Procedural help should always be available
Provide context-sensitive help
Use rollovers as a form of constant help
Always provide a help button when help is available
Provide help in a manual for starting the program
ENDING A PROGRAM
Distinguish temporary versus permanent termination
Always allow temporary termination
Provide safety nets when the learner requests termination
Give credits and a final message at the end
Approach to instructional design
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Using cognition and learning theories to develop a framework and a set of requirements to approach multimedia
design for educational purposes
1.
2.
3.
Flexible access and structuring of knowledge and rich information
Felxible interaction with this knowledge and information
Communication and interaction among participants in a learning experience
Framework is built according to the following design proposals:



To structure rich format and knowledge proposed integrated use of cognitive maps and hypervideo
To support individual and collective interaction and manipulation of information and knowledge, we
require the ability to navigate and change those structures
To enable personal interaction and communication, we require sharing and co-construction of both
information and knowledge structures.
Cognitive modes are taken into account in the navigational support in the rich media environment, and in support for
cognitive structure elicitation, collectively done by learners and teachers in the hyperscapes model. The four
learning styles are supported in the following ways:
Reflector. A large portion of the web is asynchronous, it caters naturally to the needs of reflective students.
Pragmatist. Practical exercises with problem solving structure and a theoretical support were implemented with
images and sound that contextualize the experience.
Theorist.
Activist. The web naturally lends itself to active discoveries through hyperlinks, and the main assets are its multiple
navigation possibilities, email, message boards, chat, multimedia, videoconferencing and the highest level of
interactivity.
Hyperscapes learning Model
A mechanism to bring expressive power to authors and a tool to support learners in finding paths relevant to their
own aims and needs. It utilizes concept mapping support for construction, visualization and navigation of complex
hypermedia structures. The goal is to develop reference models that are meaningful organizations of information in
our minds. This process is facilitated if meaningful sounds, pictues and graphics are used to express ideas.
Visualization is an important concept in this process as learners attempt to mind map the structure of knowledge
they acquire.
Cognitive Flexibility Theory - learners are able to spontaneously restructure their knowledge in many ways as they
chart their courses through the hypermedia material. Leraners construct multimedia artefacts - knowledge and
information hyperscapes- initiated by the instructor and further developed and shared in an organic, adaptive and
generative manner.
The role of hypervideo
"Video can greatly enhance the authenticity of a computer based learning environment."
"For a system to allow learner reflection, it must have a compositional and representational medium that affords
adding new representations while modifying and manipulating old ones, and it must perform comparisons(Norman,
1993). Reflection also requires the time and ability to elaborate upon and compare ideas. Thus, the medium must
afford reflection time. Broadcast television cannot augment human reflection; it does not afford comparison or the
time to reflect. It is usually watched in an experiential mode. However, television and viseo could be a powerful tool
for reflection if the user could select what is to be seen and control the pace of the material, and could go back and
forth, stopping, making annotations, comparing its relation to other materials.
Effective reflection requires some structure and organization (Norman, 1993). Structuring and organizing material is
the main issue in hypermedia. Hypervideo refers to the integration of video in truly hypermedia documents. True
integration of video requires a more powerful hypermedia model that takes into account its spatial and temporal
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dimensions as well as aesthetic and rhetorical aspects of integrating several media. The hypermedia model should
also define the semantic structures and mechanisms for linking video, and find new concepts of navigation. For an
adequate support of learning processes, integration with video must allow the learner to exercise the "natural"
experiential cognitive attitude when watching video, so as to induce and support the reflection processes, and
correlate different types of information
Efficiency and effectiveness of pedagogical framework and the use of cognitive maps and hypervideo:
Students appreciated the freedom to access and integrate different resources, to build new materials as hypermedia
productions, and to respond to challenges, creating new situations and constructing their own knowledge maps
Constructivist activities were very motivating to the majority of students and the tools were easily mastered. Precise
focus on the objectives was attained by work groups without wasting time "playing around" with software.
Ability to integrate video into hyperdocuments was also an important feature, as it enabled learners to create rich
representations and promote deeper understandings. It improved both text and video understanding, due to the
contextualized explanations and illustrations made possible by the integration of both materials. Important relations
with video information could be captured.
Students were more motivated to watch the videos, as the process became more flexible and engaging. It was easier
to search for information and to capture the videos' messages through the different maps available. Video sourse
material is better used in a reflective mode if presented in such a way that the content or knowledge structure is
made explicit. Different learning styles were supported through different interaction and navigation choices.
Guidance on the thematic criss-crossing of the subject domain is important for the construction of concept maps.
Students get easily lost if there is no tutor or expert support, no matter what access thay have to the knowledge
resources.
The results suggest that the adoption of cognitive maps and hypervideo in our pedagogical framework is a powerful
way to support the structuring of and interaction with rich knowledge and information spaces, allowing for more
effective, flexible, rich and participatory learner centered environments.
The activity theory
This theory uses the information processing approach. The second approach; human centered design approach,
strives for an interface that is attractive, easy and effective for users. The desktop approach comes from this
approach which also includes file manipulation, text editing, public automats such as information kiosks, ticket
vending machines "In complex tasks (e.g. computer-aided learning, computer-aided design, programming or process
control) the user-interface becomes part of the task solving process (Reber,1989).”
"the theoretical approach resulted in interfaces that improved learning performance, but these interfaces
were not necessarily most time effective. On the other hand, the application of user-centered design
principles resulted in interfaces that benefited from shorter task solving times and higher satisfaction, but
this was at the cost of the learning performance. A combination of both design principles would aim at
defining interfaces supporting both high performances and high satisfaction (Reber, 1989).”
Implicit and Explicit Learning
People can learn in two different modes (Reber, A.S., 1989; Hayes & Broadbent, 1988)
Explicit learning mode is characterized by rational, selective and conscious attention. Implies observing a
manageable number of variables from the environment and keeping count only of the contigencies between
those variables. This learning mode is more demanding for the cognitive system. People who learn by this
sytle develop a mental model of the problem, which can be consulted, manipulated and communicated.It is
this type of learning that we classify as problem solving (Reber, 1989; Hayes & Broadbent, 1988)
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Implicit learning mode is an unconscious process that yields abstract knowledge. Similar to trial and error
learning. It implies storing all the contigencies between all variables at play. Reber defines implicit learning
as a "general, modal free process, a fundamental operation whereby critical co-variations in the stimulus
environment are picked up" (Reber, 1989, p.135; Reber, 1989, p. 135)
The success of employing one of these modes depends on characteristics of the problem or the learning task. All
learning task or problem has a structure of rules, which affects how the problem should be solved and which
solutions should be attempted.
Task saliency - " degree to which the critical features of the stimulus material are obvious to the subjects, and by the
amount of information that needs to be considered. The more features that need to be considered, the less salient is
the problem (Reber,1989).” The saliency of a problem increases if the number of irrelevant factors in the situation is
low, or if the key events are in accordance with general knowledge from outside the problem.
Saliency example: (Reber's research)
Developed artificial language using strings of letters. Only certain combinations of the letters would follow the rules
of the artificial grammar. Under the salient condition, letter strings were organized in columns so that each column
represented one underlying stimulus type. Under the non-salient condition, the letter strings were shown randomly.
The learning modes can be induced by external factors. In Reber's research, a learning mode could be induced in the
subjects by means of instructions. Subjects that were told to search for rules in an artificial language would learn in
an explicit mode. If the subjects were led to believe that there were no rules then they would learn in an implicit
mode.
Impact on learning
Subjects that were instructed to search for rules (implicit mode) were able to memorize exemplars of the stimulus
structure better. Subjects that were not instructed to search for rules (explicit mode) tended to invent their own rules,
which were inaccurate representations of the stimulus structure. According to the theory, the ideal combination of
problem saliency and learning mode would be to learn in an explicit mode if the problem is salient, and to learn in
an implicit mode if the problem is not salient. The implications of this theory is that people should be induced to
learn in a mode that corresponds to the problem saliency. In terms of HCI and interface design, different user
interfaces can induce the two learning modes.
Applying this theory to HCI
User interface definition - "the parts of the system with which the user comes into contact physically, perceptually or
cognitively" This includes keyboard, mouse, joy-stick, touch screen as well as software features such as the
graphical and structural organization of a program.
Interaction - Tools and learning modes
There are several interaction tools that can induce different learning modes. For example, a mouse requires that the
user directly interacts directly with objects. Conversely, other interaction tools require that the user interact by
intermediary actions by typing commands. When the cognitive impact of two different tools differs enough,
different learning modes can be introduced. "Recent research shows that the user interface radically can influence
the way people learn by means of a computer (Schar, 2000)." (Schar, 2000) Research shows that an interaction tool
which induces a learning mode, also has consequences for the learning performance. Interaction tools that increase
the cognitive load on students when learning (e.g. by demanding the users type commands in order to interact), can
inducean explicit learning style. Interaction tools implying little cognitive load on the users, such as interaction by
direct manipulation with graphical objects, tend to induce more implicit, trial and error learning mode. The success
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of learning a certain task is closely linked to the chosen learning strategy. The interaction tool can play a major role
in successful learning by supporting or inhibiting certain strategies (Schar, 2000).
Navigation Methods and Learning Modes
Methods of moving between different states, pages, or masks in a program. The way in which a user is required to
navigate will impact the way in which the information is perceived. The navigation strategy also influences the
acquisition of knowledge. This depends on whether the navigation strategy is implicit or explicit. Either mode can
be induced by the navigational tool.
Browsing
Implicit learning mode is most often supported in free structured navigational systems such as hypertext.
Spontaneous and unstructured movements are supported in this type of scheme. Also, systems such as these are
highly unsalient. An example of this type of navigational scheme is browsing. It is an implicit navigational strategy.
"The hypertext/media based structure of internet supports navigation by browsing,
which is a way of seeking new information. This information can be unknown, but anticipated." Browsing is an
information seeking strategy. It is best suited to covering a large and complex area without focus on detail.
Browsing is also characterized by exploring activities, scanning activities, and extending activities. The purpose of
browsing is may be implicit or tacit in the understanding of the user.
Simulations
In simulations there is typically no pre-defined structure of the action sequences, because of this simulations are
very similar to hypertext/media systems. Operating a simulation is neither browsing or non-browsing, but
somewhere in between. This is due to the fact that simulations involve tacit changes of state depending on the user
actions. There are two common simulation types. Those that involve the demonstration of complex information and
those that involve spatial movements.
Simulations demonstrating complex relationships:
Navigation becomes a matter of selecting the right cognitive strategy for the optimal sequence of actions."The
knowledge comes gradually by induction, where in hypermedia systems the knowledge may be explicitly presented
on one mode (Schar, 2000)." Simulations involving spatial movements such as in virtual rooms must allow
navigational techniques that allow the users to walk around.
Non-browsing
This navigational strategy is more direct and focused than browsing. It involves navigation through a structured
environment or metaphor. Allows users to focus their attention away from orienting themselves with the
environment to theinformation within the environment. It is more concerned with having a structured model for the
navigation. An example of non-browsing navigation is when users navigate in a linear fashion between pages.
Examples such as this are often used in CBT, and employ a book metaphor. The learning mode that is utilized in
non-browsing is most often explicit. Often the book metapho reduces the orientation load and allows for more
attention to be devoted to the information content. This is because the users. "Most computer-based learning
applications support non-browsing navigation (Schar, 2000)." These environments were typical in the hypercard©
appliations, where users navigate with buttons that move them from page to page. These environments are very
structured.
Feedback and Learning Modes
Feedback about learning performance is an important feature when considering interface design and instructional
design. Feedback can be of two types. There is feedback content, which is the actual information that is given in the
form of feedback and feedback form, which is the way in which the feedback information is presented to the user.
Both feedback content and feedback form have their place in the overall design of a user interface. The different
forms of content feedback are presented in the following table, adapted from (Schar, 2000)
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FEEDBACK CONTENT TYPES
Feedback content type
Response feedback
Definition
 Provides an evaluation of the appropriateness
of an action
Approach feedback





Motivation feedback
Cognitive feedback
Relates to the chosen task solving strategy
Realistic for simple tasks
Complicated for complex tasks
Intended to increase the effort put forth learning
Many factors should be considered in terms of
what motivated the user
The interaction where users can observe the
consequences of their actions

FEEDBACK FORMS
Feedback Forms
Visual
Feedback content
Response


Movements, Picture, Text
Say why the student's response is correct or
incorrect
Say what a correct response would be

Verbal
Approach


Text, Voice
Say whether an approach is appropriate
Auditory
Motivational


Sound, Voice
Say that the performance is good
Tactile
Cognitive (indirect)


Related to HW
Showing the new system states in a
recognizable way. Based on perceptual features
Feedback can be direct or indirect. Direct feedback occurs when a user initiates an action and feedback is given in
the form of visual, verbal, auditory, or tactile because of the initial action. "Direct visual feedback is one of the most
powerful effects in simulation-based learning." Indirect feedback is the feedback that occurs within the learning
environment that is not specific to a particular action. Background colors, sounds, text, and other forms can be
present, stimulating the user even though they did not arise from a particular direct action. Both direct and indirect
feedback can be excellent for engaging the learner.
Feedback can also be continuous or discontinuous, depending on the application. Continuous feedback is used in the
Adobe Photoshop suite where users can operate dialogue boxes and change different parameters as they wish. The
way that Adobe Photoshop integrates continuous feedback is when a change is made by the user the change can be
viewed instantaneously. This form of feedback is continuous.
An example where discontinuous feedback is utilized is in 3-D programs. Say for example that the user wishes to
manipulate a 3-D box by rotating the object about an axis. The user can rotate the object, but it is only when the
rotation is complete that the object will appear to be rotated. In other words, in many 3-D applications, because of
processing concerns, the manipulations for an object are not viewed as they occur, but rather after they have
occurred. This means that the feedback in these instances is discontinuous.
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Experiments
In a experiments carried out by Schar, 2000, three questions that are very important to HCI, and instructional design
were considered:

Theoretically based HCI design and human centered design are different approaches to research.

The approach taken in the research affects the selection of measures or independent variables. The estimated
user-friendliness of an interface depends on the selected measures.

Five experiments were carried out to investigate the above three questions. The first three experiments studied
interaction tools, experiment 4 studied navigation methods, and experiment 5 studied feedback.

From the five HCI experiments, the following conclusions were made:
Issues in measuring or analyzing usability
Typically interfaces have been studied and assessed in terms of performance. Technically speaking, the definition of
performance in this case is the time necessary to complete the task. When looking strictly at performance, several
factors that may affect performance good or bad are overlooked. In particular, the effort put forth for the desired
outcome and the quality of the result. A measure of activity level may also be appropriate. It must be noted that
usability is a general term that may group many variables. An interface may have a high usability in terms on one
aspect and may be lacking. Mono operation bias can also come into play in assessing usability of an interface. By
mono operation bias, we mean that there are certain bias that may exist within the interface that may influence the
outcome. Measuring an effect with limited variables or variables that only reflect one factor. This is a serious issue
regarding HCI and CAL.
Conclusions
Theoretically based HCI design and human centered design are basically different research approaches
The two approaches to studying HCI are human centered design approach, which primarily focuses on direct cause
and effect relationships measured by user preferences efficiency, and the theoretical approach which offers a model
for the impact of a given learning context. The reason that we discuss these approaches is because we need to have a
consistent, detailed and effective approach which analyzes the interface with respect to learning consistently and
appropriately. However, in computer aided learning applications it is not sufficient to use the theoretical and human
centered approach to assess the effectiveness or usability of the interface. The reasons for this is that the interface
may be very user-friendly but may not meet the educational or learning objectives in terms of efficiency or
preference. Also, the interface may be very non user-friendly, but may yield high marks in terms of user preference
and efficiency of the learner or user. An efficient and highly preferred interaction method (i.e. direct manipulation)
combined with discontinuous feedback resulted in the achievement of both goals: high satisfaction and high learning
performance.
The research approach influences the selection of measures (independent variables). The estimated userfriendliness of an interface depends on the selected measures/factors.
The estimated usability of an interface depends on the selected measures. From this statement we can see that a user
interface may have many features that could be considered user-friendly or non user-friendly depending on what
factors or variables are studied. Also several variables within the interface may only affect one factor of the learning.
A particular element within the user interface may be given too much credit.
The user-interface can influence the learning performance considerably by inducing different learning
modes.
The user-interface influences knowledge acquisition. The success of learning a particular task is affected by the
induced learning strategy introduced by the interface. The success of a learning strategy is dependent on the task.
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Therefore, the user-interface directly controls the success of learning by enforcing or hindering certain learning
strategies.Also, there are inherent factors within the user interface that may influence the overall outcome of the
learning. The concept of user-friendliness should include a cognitive factor. In terms of user friendliness with
respect to cognitive factors, "we should not optimise satisfaction and efficiency at the cost of good learning
performance (Schar, 2000)."
The effects that user-interfaces have on the inducement of learning modes should be isolated when assessed in terms
of usability. Research shows that the inducement of a learning mode is correlated to the perceived cognitive load.
User-interfaces such as command interaction and cognitive feedback by extended menu increase the task load and
result in better learning. The explanation for this is that the users strive to reduce the necessary steps to complete a
particular task by learning rationally and consciously.
Timing in feedback shows to be another element of consideration. Direct manipulation yields immediate feedback
about objects and states of objects. Continuous update of this feedback further enhances the effect. This type of
feedback strategy reinforces the implicit learning mode, which is the less favorable.Command-based interfaces
result in a discontinuous update of feedback. The same affect can be implemented by delaying feedback until an
action is completed. This type of feedback induces the explicit learning mode. The last feedback consideration is
that of verbal feedback and cognitive feedback. This type of feedback causes users to focus their attention towards
the ongoing activity.
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Methodologies
TUTORIALS : Summary adapted from (Alessi & Trolli, 2000)
Description: Tutorial programs specifically target the first two phases of the instruction phase: presentation, and
guided practice. Some tutorials can present information, provide guided practice, or both. All tutorials should take
into consideration the following aspects of proper instructional design.
INTRODUCTION
Use short title page
State lesson goals or objectives briefly, except for children
Give accurate directions and make them available to the learner at all times
Relate what the learner will study to previous knowledge
Avoid putting pretests in a tutorial.
LEARNER CONTROL
Give adults more control than children
Always allow control of forward progression and backward review
Allow global controls, rather than occasional control
Always allow temporary termination
When menus are used, they should always be available
Always provide controls for sudio, video, and animation (pause, continue, replay, skip, volume change, and
speed change)
Use the mouse for learner control
MOTIVATION
Emphasize intrinsic motivation whenever possible
Consider motivation at the macro-level (strategies) and micro-level (lesson scharacteristics)
Provide an appropriate level of challenge
Arouse and maintain curiosity
Enhance imagery and involvement through fantasy
Provide an appropriate level of learner control
Arouse and maintain attention throughout the lesson
Content should be relevant to the learner and the relevance should be made clear
Provide opportunity for success and satisfaction through appropriate goals, reinforcement, and fairness
Apply motivation techniques in moderation, intelligently, and in harmony with other instructional factors
PRESENTATION OF INFORMATION
Presentations should be short
Layouts should be attractive and consistent
Avoid scrolling
Use conventions in paragraphing, keypresses, directions, and response prompts
Use graphics for important information, analogy, and cues
Keep graphics simple
Use color sparingly and for important information
Avoid color in text
Text should be lean, clear, and have good mechanics
Stress clear transitions between presentations of different topics
Use appropriate organizational methods for verbal information, concepts, rules and principles, and skills
Provide procedural help and make it easy to request
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QUESTIONS AND RESPONSES
Ask frequent questions, especially comprehension questions
Use the mouse for responding whenever possible
Put the typing prompt below the question and near the left margin
Questions should promote response economy
Ask questions about important information
Allow the learner more than one try to answer a question
Do not require the learner to get a correct answer (without help) to proceed
Give help on response format whenever possible
Alternate- response questions are harder to write, easier to judge, and allow guessing
Constructed-response questions are easier to write, easier to judge, and allow guessing
Foils (distracters) on multiple-choice questions should be plausible
Fill-in questions should have the blanks near the end
Be aware whether you should be testing recall or comprehension, and use appropriate question types
Reading difficulty should be appropriate to learner’s reading level
Avoid abbreviations and negatives in questions
Questions should never scroll out of view
Questions should appear after information in a lesson and below information on a particular display
Global learner controls should still be available during questions
JUDGING RESPONSES
Judge intelligently, as a live instructor would. Allow for word order, synonyms, spelling, and extra words
Look for both correct responses and expected incorrect responses
Allow as much time as the learner needs for a response
Allow the learner to ask for help, and to escape
PROVIDING FEEDBACK ABOUT RESPONSES
If response content is correct, give a short affirmation
If response format is incorrect, say so and allow another response
If response content is incorrect, give corrective feedback
REMEDIATION
Provide remediation for repeated poor performance. This may be a recommendation to go back and review
or see an instructor, or seek another resource
SEQUENCING LESSON SEGMENTS
Overall sequence should be hierarchical or based on difficulty
Avoid simple linear tutorials. Provide branching based on performance
The learner should control the progression. Never use timed pauses
Provide restarting capability
Give sequence control to mature learners
Always permit temporary ending based on learner choice
Permanent ending should be based on learner performance
CLOSING
Store data for restarting
Clear the screen
Make the end obvious with a short final message
Return the learner to wherever he or she started before the tutorial
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