Design Theory
For Gambling, Pub, and Casino Games
James Ernest • PaxDev 2015
I Make Games
Some Gambling Games I’ve Made

Pairs
◦ ‘New Classic Pub Game” 2014
◦ Lots of Pairs Variants
 Deadfall, Sweep, Blackstone, etc.

Fable II Pub Games
◦ Wizard’s Tower
◦ Keystone
◦ Spinner Box

Many games at cheapass.com
◦
◦
◦
◦
Palomino, Red Baron
Poker Suite (Willow, Barcelona, others)
Renfield
Chief Herman’s (Bogart, Crash, others)
Who is This Lecture For?
Who is This Lecture For?

You Want To:
◦ Design a new gambling game
Who is This Lecture For?

You Want To:
◦ Design a new gambling game
◦ Create a new game or games within your
RPG or alternate world
Who is This Lecture For?

You Want To:
◦ Design a new gambling game
◦ Create a new game or games within your
RPG or alternate world
◦ Fix, analyze, or understand the appeal of an
existing gambling game
Who is This Lecture For?

You Want To:
◦ Design a new gambling game
◦ Create a new game or games within your
RPG or alternate world
◦ Fix, analyze, or understand the appeal of an
existing gambling game

The lecture you care about doesn’t start until 2:30
Basic Goals
Simplicity without Tedium
 Depth without Confusion

Lecture Outline
Define Gambling, Casino, and Pub Games
Describe Luck, Strategy, and Work
Define “Fun”
State Design Goals
Analysis and Examples
Definitions
Gambling Games
 Casino Games
 Pub Games

Definitions

Gambling Games
◦ Casual Games, Scored with Money
 Easy to Learn
 Quick: 0-5 minutes per game
 Strong Luck Element
Casino Games
 Pub Games

Definitions

Gambling Games
◦ Casual Games, Scored with Money
 Easy to Learn
 Quick: 0-5 minutes per game
 Strong Luck Element

Casino Games
◦ Involve a “House” Player
 Different rules, always some advantage

Pub Games
Definitions

Gambling Games
◦ Casual Games, Scored with Money
 Easy to Learn
 Quick: 0-5 minutes per game
 Strong Luck Element

Casino Games
◦ Involve a “House” Player
 Different rules, always some advantage

Pub Games
◦ No “House” Player
Examples

Casino Games
◦
◦
◦
◦
◦
Craps
Slot Machines
Blackjack
Roulette
Faro
Examples

Casino Games
◦
◦
◦
◦
◦
Craps
Slot Machines
Blackjack
Roulette
Faro

Pub Games
◦
◦
◦
◦
◦
Poker
Gin Rummy
Liar’s Dice
Baccarat
Darts
Examples

Casino Games
◦
◦
◦
◦
◦
Craps
Slot Machines
Blackjack
Roulette
Faro

Pub Games
◦
◦
◦
◦
◦
Poker
Gin Rummy
Liar’s Dice
Baccarat
Darts
◦ By these rules, a tournament of any casino
game counts as a “pub” game
◦ Ergo, pigeonholes are never perfect.
Metaphor Time

Taking a Cruise
Metaphor Time

Taking a Cruise
• Plenty of Options
• Nothing is Required
Metaphor Time

Taking a Cruise
• Plenty of Options
• Nothing is Required
• Primary Focus:
Separate Customer
from Money
Metaphor Time

Taking a Cruise
• Plenty of Options
• Nothing is Required
• Primary Focus:
Separate Customer
from Money
• Secondary Focus:
Entertainment
Luck Vs. Strategy
Luck
Strategy
Luck Vs. Strategy
Coin Flip
Luck
Strategy
Luck Vs. Strategy
Coin Flip
Luck
Chess
Strategy
Luck Vs. Strategy
Coin Flip
UNO
Luck
Chess
Monopoly
Scrabble
Strategy
Luck Vs. Strategy
Coin Flip
Slot Machine
Candy Land
UNO
Luck
Chess
Monopoly
Scrabble
Strategy
Luck Vs. Strategy
Coin Flip
Slot Machine
Candy Land
UNO
Luck
Tic-Tac-Toe
Checkers
Chess
Monopoly
Scrabble
Strategy
Luck Vs. Strategy
Coin Flip
Slot Machine
Candy Land
Tic-Tac-Toe
Checkers
Chess
EVERYTHING ELSE
Luck
Strategy
Luck And Strat: Separate Axes
Strategy
Luck
Luck And Strategy
Strategy
Each axis represents the
number of strategy- or luckbased decisions in the game.
Luck
Luck And Strategy
Strategy
Each axis represents the
number of strategy- or luckbased decisions in the game.
Luck
Luck And Strategy
Strategy
Each axis represents the
number of strategy- or luckbased decisions in the game.
Luck
Luck And Strategy
Strategy
Each axis represents the
number of strategy- or luckbased decisions in the game.
Luck
A Third Axis: Work
Strategy
Work
Defining “Work”
Strategy
The Work axis defines the
difficulty or complexity of the
average action.
Work
Defining “Work”
Strategy
The Work axis defines the
difficulty or complexity of the
average action.
Work
Work is Not Exclusive to Skill Games.
Strategy
Placing and Paying bets in
Craps is complex, even
though the work requires
no strategic decisions.
Work
Luck
Some People Love Work
Strategy
Work, as much as Strategy,
defines the line between
“Casual” and “Hardcore”
games.
Work
Luck
Defining Our Range
Strategy
Gambling Games Have:
• Little or No Strategy
• Low Work – much of it is optional
• Some Luck, but short play time
Work
Luck
Defining “Play”

Messing with something
Defining “Play”

Messing with something
◦ Poking at a new system
◦ Learning how it works
Defining “Play”
Messing with something
 Goats on a Metal Sheet

◦ Poking at a new system
◦ Learning how it works

Defining “Fun” in this context
◦ A mix of comprehension and surprise
 Making guesses about results
 Usually guessing right, but not always
Defining “Fun”

In the Fun Zone
◦ Between Confusion and Boredom
Defining “Fun”

In the Fun Zone
◦ Between Confusion and Boredom
Defining “Fun”

In the Fun Zone
◦ Between Confusion and Boredom
 Confusion: Not predicting anything
 Boredom: Predicting everything
◦ Video games can have a difficulty ramp
◦ Tabletop games need optional depth
 If you’re new, you can ignore it.
 When you know enough to look, it’s there.
Competence, Autonomy, and
Relevance (CAR)

Three Things People Want
◦ Competence
◦ Autonomy
◦ Relevance
Competence, Autonomy, and
Relevance (CAR)

Three Things People Want
◦ Competence
◦ Autonomy
◦ Relevance
Competence, Autonomy, and
Relevance (CAR)

Three Things People Want
◦ Competence
 Not Sucking
 (The Rail)
◦ Autonomy
◦ Relevance
Competence, Autonomy, and
Relevance (CAR)

Three Things People Want
◦ Competence
 Not Sucking
 (The Rail)
◦ Autonomy
 Having Control
 (The Steering Wheel)
◦ Relevance
Competence, Autonomy, and
Relevance (CAR)

Three Things People Want
◦ Competence
 Not Sucking
 (The Rail)
◦ Autonomy
 Having Control
 (The Steering Wheel)
◦ Relevance
 Mattering
 (The Passenger Seat)
How Casino Games deliver CAR

Competence
◦ Luck
 Winning even when you play wrong

Autonomy
◦ Decisions
 Even in pure luck games!

Relevance
◦ Competition
◦ Playing for money
How “Luck” = “Competence”

Competence
◦ Feeling like you’re good at something.
People naturally take
credit for victory, even
when their actions are
empirically irrelevant.
When you win a jackpot,
your friend will ask “What
did you get?” not “What
did it give you?”
Game Design Goals

Gambling Games Need:
Game Design Goals

Gambling Games Need:
◦ Simplicity
Game Design Goals

Gambling Games Need:
◦ Simplicity
◦ Transparency
Game Design Goals

Gambling Games Need:
◦ Simplicity
◦ Transparency
◦ Variety
Design Goals

Gambling Games Need:
◦ Simplicity
Explain your game
to this guy
in 30 seconds or less.
PS: He’s drunk.
Design Goals

Gambling Games Need:
◦ Simplicity
◦ Transparency
Players should be able
to construct a mental
model of your game.
Even if it’s wrong.
Design Goals

Gambling Games Need:
◦ Simplicity
◦ Transparency
◦ Variety
A wide variety of
meaningfully different
game states.
Don’t mistake complexity for
variety.
The Craps Moment

Complexity Kills Fun
(Imagine the dice have actually stopped rolling.)
The Bridge Story

Opacity Kills Fun
Analyzing Casino Games

A Little Math
Analyzing Casino Games

A Little Math
◦
◦
◦
◦
House and Player have different rules
House wants an “edge”
We can solve most games with simple math.
Sometimes we have to run simulations.
Roulette: 36 Stops
A “Fair Game” with no zeros.
 We say the game has

◦ “0% house advantage” or
◦ 100% RTP (Return to Player)

Real casino games are not like this.
Roulette: 36 Stops

Example: The 3-number bet
◦ Pays 11:1 on 3 numbers (e.g. 4, 5, 6)
◦ Player loses on any other result
◦ If you count each possible spin once:
 Wins: 3x12,Value = 36
 Losses: 33x0,Value = 0
 Total games = 36
 Total cost = 36
◦ Net Win / Loss = 0

0
Roulette: 37 Stops
Add one zero to the wheel
◦ (But keep the same payouts)

The 3-number bet
◦
◦
◦
◦
◦
Pays 11:1 on three numbers
Player loses on any other result
Wins: 3x12, value = 36
Losses: 34x0, value = 0
Total games=36, total cost =37, net = -1
House Advantage is 1/37, or 2.7%
 RTP is 36/37 or 97.3%

Roulette: 38 Stops

Two zeros on the wheel
◦ (This is the American standard)

The 3-number bet
◦
◦
◦
◦
◦
Pays 11:1 on three numbers
Player loses on any other result
Wins: 3x12, value = 36
Losses: 35x0, value = 0
Total games=36, total cost =38, net = -2
House Advantage is 2/38, or 5.26%
 RTP is 36/38, or 94.7%

RTPs for Typical Casino Games
Baccarat:
 Big Six
 Blackjack
 Craps
 Roulette
 Pai Gow Poker
 Slot Machines
 Video Poker

98.94%
76% - 89%
97% - 101%
86% - 100%
94.7%
98.54%
85% - 98%
93.2% - 99.5%
Solving Games with Choices
Solving Games with Choices

Purely random games can be simulated or
(in most cases) just solved outright.
Solving Games with Choices
Purely random games can be simulated or
(in most cases) just solved outright.
 Every strategic choice makes a game
harder to solve.

Solving Games with Choices
Purely random games can be simulated or
(in most cases) just solved outright.
 Every strategic choice makes a game
harder to solve.
 Games with decisions must be solved for
the best path at each point.

Solving Games with Choices
Purely random games can be simulated or
(in most cases) just solved outright.
 Every strategic choice makes a game
harder to solve.
 Games with decisions must be solved for
the best path at each point.
 Most casino games have a small number
of options. Blackjack is still way harder to
solve than Craps.

Pub Games: A Little Less Math
Pub Games: A Little Less Math

All players should have equal odds
Pub Games: A Little Less Math
All players should have equal odds
 Positional advantage can be mitigated by
rotation or randomization

Pub Games: A Little Less Math
All players should have equal odds
 Positional advantage can be mitigated by
rotation or randomization

◦ Texas Hold ’Em: Dealer Button
Pub Games: A Little Less Math
All players should have equal odds
 Positional advantage can be mitigated by
rotation or randomization

◦ Texas Hold ’Em: Dealer Button
◦ Seven Card Stud: Low Card Bring-In
Pub Games: A Little Less Math
All players should have equal odds
 Positional advantage can be mitigated by
rotation or randomization

◦ Texas Hold ’Em: Dealer Button
◦ Seven Card Stud: Low Card Bring-In

All you technically need is a proof that the
game is fair for all players
Pub Games: A Little Less Math
All players should have equal odds
 Positional advantage can be mitigated by
rotation or randomization

◦ Texas Hold ’Em: Dealer Button
◦ Seven Card Stud: Low Card Bring-In
All you technically need is a proof that the
game is fair for all players
 Optimal play still requires knowing the odds.

Advanced Design Goals
Maximize Speed
 Include Safe and Risky Paths
 Create Highly Variable Game States
 Minimize Essential Work
 Avoid Absolutes and Limits

Gambling Games Must Be Fast
Gambling Games Must Be Fast

Fast Turns
Gambling Games Must Be Fast
Fast Turns
 Immediate Feedback

Gambling Games Must Be Fast
Fast Turns
 Immediate Feedback
 Frequent Hard Resets

Gambling Games Must Be Fast
Fast Turns
 Immediate Feedback
 Frequent Hard Resets

◦ Game length: 2 seconds to 5 min.
Gambling Games Must Be Fast
Fast Turns
 Immediate Feedback
 Frequent Hard Resets

◦ Game length: 2 seconds to 5 min.
◦ Minimal reset time between games
Gambling Games Must Be Fast
Fast Turns
 Immediate Feedback
 Frequent Hard Resets

◦ Game length: 2 seconds to 5 min.
◦ Minimal reset time between games

In Craps, by the time you’re “losing,” the
game is already over.
Gambling Games Must Be Fast
Fast Turns
 Immediate Feedback
 Frequent Hard Resets

◦ Game length: 2 seconds to 5 min.
◦ Minimal reset time between games
In Craps, by the time you’re “losing,” the
game is already over.
 By contrast, you can be a hostage of
Monopoly for two hours.

Include Safe and Risky Paths.
Include Safe and Risky Paths.

Volatility is fun, but only as a choice
Include Safe and Risky Paths.
Volatility is fun, but only as a choice
 Poker would be hell without folding

Include Safe and Risky Paths.
Volatility is fun, but only as a choice
 Poker would be hell without folding
 Roulette has bets that pay 1:1, 2:1, 5:1,
6:1, 8:1, 11:1, 17:1, and 35:1.

Include Safe and Risky Paths.
Volatility is fun, but only as a choice
 Poker would be hell without folding
 Roulette has bets that pay 1:1, 2:1, 5:1,
6:1, 8:1, 11:1, 17:1, and 35:1.
 Nearly all slot machines allow you to
vary your bet size, and most are multidenomination.

Include Safe and Risky Paths.
Volatility is fun, but only as a choice
 Poker would be hell without folding
 Roulette has bets that pay 1:1, 2:1, 5:1,
6:1, 8:1, 11:1, 17:1, and 35:1.
 Nearly all slot machines allow you to
vary your bet size, and most are multidenomination.
 In Blackjack, standing is “safe” and
hitting is “risky.”

Include Safe and Risky Paths.
Volatility is fun, but only as a choice
 Poker would be hell without folding
 Roulette has bets that pay 1:1, 2:1, 5:1,
6:1, 8:1, 11:1, 17:1, and 35:1.
 Nearly all slot machines allow you to
vary your bet size, and most are multidenomination.
 In Blackjack, standing is “safe” and
hitting is “risky.”
 Neither strategy should be dominant

Simple Isn’t Easy.
Simple Isn’t Easy.

The right mix of simple rules can lead
to complex systems.
Simple Isn’t Easy.
The right mix of simple rules can lead
to complex systems.
 Try to create variety with the fewest
moving parts.

Simple Isn’t Easy.
The right mix of simple rules can lead
to complex systems.
 Try to create variety with the fewest
moving parts.
 Your game should have as many
meaningfully different game states as
possible.

Simple Isn’t Easy.
The right mix of simple rules can lead
to complex systems.
 Try to create variety with the fewest
moving parts.
 Your game should have as many
meaningfully different game states as
possible.
 Think in terms of how many different
stories people can tell.

Minimize Essential Work
Minimize Essential Work

Don’t paralyze players with choices.
Minimize Essential Work
Don’t paralyze players with choices.
 Most decisions should be easy.

Minimize Essential Work
Don’t paralyze players with choices.
 Most decisions should be easy.
 Easy choices are like breadcrumbs: they
lead players to understand the
importance of the few hard ones.

Minimize Essential Work
Don’t paralyze players with choices.
 Most decisions should be easy.
 Easy choices are like breadcrumbs: they
lead players to understand the
importance of the few hard ones.
 Decisions do not have to be impactful
to be fun.

Minimize Essential Work
Don’t paralyze players with choices.
 Most decisions should be easy.
 Easy choices are like breadcrumbs: they
lead players to understand the
importance of the few hard ones.
 Decisions do not have to be impactful
to be fun.
 Poor decisions should not hurt badly.

Minimize Essential Work
Don’t paralyze players with choices.
 Most decisions should be easy.
 Easy choices are like breadcrumbs: they
lead players to understand the
importance of the few hard ones.
 Decisions do not have to be impactful
to be fun.
 Poor decisions should not hurt badly.
 Deep thinking should not help much.

Avoid Absolutes and Limits
Avoid Absolutes and Limits

“Always,” “Never,” “Exactly” are bad.
Avoid Absolutes and Limits
“Always,” “Never,” “Exactly” are bad.
 Try to allow as much freedom as you
can with a single rule.

Avoid Absolutes and Limits
“Always,” “Never,” “Exactly” are bad.
 Try to allow as much freedom as you
can with a single rule.
 This allows you to create a bigger game
space with fewer variables.

Avoid Absolutes and Limits
“Always,” “Never,” “Exactly” are bad.
 Try to allow as much freedom as you
can with a single rule.
 This allows you to create a bigger game
space with fewer variables.
 For example, no-limit poker is more
variable than spread limit poker, which
is more variable than fixed limit poker.

◦ The only difference is how much you are
allowed to bet.
An Example Game: Da Vinci
An Example Game: Da Vinci

I wrote this game for this lecture.
An Example Game: Da Vinci
I wrote this game for this lecture.
 It started as a dice game with d8s.

An Example Game: Da Vinci
I wrote this game for this lecture.
 It started as a dice game with d8s.
 It became a game with a poker deck.

An Example Game: Da Vinci
I wrote this game for this lecture.
 It started as a dice game with d8s.
 It became a game with a poker deck.
 The core concept of this game: Folded
players can sell their cards.

Rules for DaVinci, Page 1/2
Rules for DaVinci, Page 1/2

Players ante $1
Rules for DaVinci, Page 1/2
Players ante $1
 Shuffle and deal each player two cards
face up.

Rules for DaVinci, Page 1/2
Players ante $1
 Shuffle and deal each player two cards
face up.
 Players make a simultaneous secret bid
between $1 and $5.

Rules for DaVinci, Page 1/2
Players ante $1
 Shuffle and deal each player two cards
face up.
 Players make a simultaneous secret bid
between $1 and $5.
 The lowest bidder is knocked out. In a tie,
the worst hand is knocked out.

Rules for DaVinci, Page 1/2
Players ante $1
 Shuffle and deal each player two cards
face up.
 Players make a simultaneous secret bid
between $1 and $5.
 The lowest bidder is knocked out. In a tie,
the worst hand is knocked out.
 Surviving players spend their bids to buy
cards.

Rules for DaVinci, Page 2/2
Rules for DaVinci, Page 2/2

Buying Cards:
Rules for DaVinci, Page 2/2

Buying Cards:
◦ Take one card from the folded player, and pay
your bid to that player, OR
Rules for DaVinci, Page 2/2

Buying Cards:
◦ Take one card from the folded player, and pay
your bid to that player, OR
◦ Take one card from the deck, and pay your bid
to the pot.
Rules for DaVinci, Page 2/2

Buying Cards:
◦ Take one card from the folded player, and pay
your bid to that player, OR
◦ Take one card from the deck, and pay your bid
to the pot.

After all players have paid their bid, the
best 3-card poker hand wins.
Rules for DaVinci, Page 2/2

Buying Cards:
◦ Take one card from the folded player, and pay
your bid to that player, OR
◦ Take one card from the deck, and pay your bid
to the pot.

After all players have paid their bid, the
best 3-card poker hand wins.
◦ 3 of a kind > Straight > Flush > Pair
Rules for DaVinci, Page 2/2

Buying Cards:
◦ Take one card from the folded player, and pay
your bid to that player, OR
◦ Take one card from the deck, and pay your bid
to the pot.

After all players have paid their bid, the
best 3-card poker hand wins.
◦ 3 of a kind > Straight > Flush > Pair

Winner collects the pot.
DaVinci Development Discoveries

Open hands are better than closed ones
◦ Bidding for the right to buy cards is best
when all cards are known. There is more
variability in game state. (But three cards is
too many.)
DaVinci Development Discoveries

Open hands are better than closed ones
◦ Bidding for the right to buy cards is best
when all cards are known. There is more
variability in game state. (But three cards is
too many.)

One bid is better than two
◦ We had a version where you bid once to stay
in (coin = stay, no coin = drop), then again for
the auction. Unnecessarily complex.
DaVinci Development Discoveries

Open hands are better than closed ones
◦ Bidding for the right to buy cards is best when all
cards are known. There is more variability in
game state. (But three cards is too many.)

One bid is better than two
◦ We had a version where you bid once to stay in
(coin = stay, no coin = drop), then again for the
auction. Unnecessarily complex.

The meat of this game is in the bid.
◦ Executing the auction is rote, except when a
miracle card comes off the deck.
DaVinci: Sample Deal
DaVinci Isn’t Perfect.
Many opening positions are less
interesting that the example.
 It’s not fun to pay $1 to fold.
 There’s not much opportunity for bluffing
in a blind auction.
 However, it does deliver some good
moments and some interesting puzzles.
 And give it a break, it’s two days old.

Iterative Testing
Iterative Testing

Play, Change, Repeat
◦ These games are SUPER easy to edit
Iterative Testing

Play, Change, Repeat
◦ These games are SUPER easy to edit

Keep your design goals in mind
◦ e.g. “Selling my folded cards”
Iterative Testing

Play, Change, Repeat
◦ These games are SUPER easy to edit

Keep your design goals in mind
◦ e.g. “Selling my folded cards”

Preserve the core, cut away the rest
◦ Kill every rule that doesn’t carry its weight
Iterative Testing

Play, Change, Repeat
◦ These games are SUPER easy to edit

Keep your design goals in mind
◦ e.g. “Selling my folded cards”

Preserve the core, cut away the rest
◦ Kill every rule that doesn’t carry its weight

Show new versions to new players!
◦ Don’t let “experts” drive development
Iterative Testing

Play, Change, Repeat
◦ These games are SUPER easy to edit

Keep your design goals in mind
◦ e.g. “Selling my folded cards”

Preserve the core, cut away the rest
◦ Kill every rule that doesn’t carry its weight

Show new versions to new players!
◦ Don’t let “experts” drive development

Skip the hard math until you’re sure.
Questions?

James Ernest
◦ Twitter: @cheapassjames
◦ Tumblr: prettybigif

Cheapass Games
◦ Web: cheapass.com
◦ Twitter: @cheapassgames

Pairs
◦ Web: playpairs.com