Discrete Mathematics
Math 6A
Instructor: M. Welling
1.1 Propositions
• Logic allows consistent mathematical reasoning.
• Many applications in CS: construction and verification computer programs,
circuit design, etc.
Proposition: A statement that is either true (T) or false (F).
example: Toronto is the capital of Canada in 2003 (F).
1+1=2 (T).
counter-example: Study this material well.
Compound Propositions: New propositions formed by existing propositions
and logical operators.
Let “P” be a proposition. Then
It is not the case that “P”.

P
(“NOT P”) is another one stating that:
1.1 Propositions
truth
table
example: P:
Today is Tuesday.
NOT P: Today is not Tuesday.
P

P
T
F
F
T
NOT is the negation operator. Another class of operators are the “connectives”.
P AND Q
P OR Q
P XOR Q
conjunction
disjunction , inclusive OR.
exclusive OR.
P Q
example:
Bob is married to Carol. (T)
Bob is married to Betty or to Carol. (T)
Bob is married to Betty and to Carol (F).
PQ
PQ
PQ
T
T
T
T
F
T
F
F
T
T
F
T
F
T
T
F
F
F
F
F
1.1 Implications
Implication : P  Q , P IMPLIES Q. P is hypothesis, Q is consequence.
some names: if P then Q, Q when P, Q follows from P, P only if Q.
example: If you make no mistakes, then you’ll get an A.
Bidirectional implication: PQ , P if and only if (iff) Q.
Implications are often used in mathematical proofs.
Consider: P  Q.
converse: Q  P.
contra-positive: (NOT Q)  (NOT P) (equiv.)
inverse: (NOT P)  (NOT Q).
P Q
PQ
PQ
T
T
T
T
T
F
F
F
F
T
T
F
F
F
T
T
weird?
1.1 Precedence, Bits.
Order of precedence: NOT, AND, OR, XOR, , .
example: PQ AND NOT R = P (Q AND (NOT R) ).
Bits are units of information. 1=T, 0=F.
Bit-strings are sequences of bits: 00011100101010
We can use our logic operators to manipulate these bit-strings:
example: 0110 AND
1100 =
0100
puzzle: Is this a proposition: “This statement is false”?
if S = T  S = F, if S = F  S = T whoa: it is neither true nor false!
Some examples on white board
1.2 Propositional Equivalences
Tautology: Proposition that is always true. for example: P OR (NOT P).
Contradiction: Proposition that is always false. for example: P AND (NOT P).
Others: Contingencies.
Two propositions are logically equivalent if P  Q is always true (tautology).
This is denoted by P  Q .
Example: Morgan’s Law:

( P  Q)   P   Q
P Q

( P  Q)

P  Q
T
T
F
F
T
F
F
F
F
T
F
F
F
F
T
T
1.2 Propositional Equivalences
Proving equivalences by truth tables can easily become computationally
demanding:
equivalence with 1 prop.: truth table has columns of size 2.
equivalence with 2 prop.: ..................................................4.
equivalence with 3 prop.: ..................................................8.
2n
equivalence with n prop.: ...................................................
(How many times do we need to fold the NY-times to fit between the
earth and the moon ?)
Solution: we use a list of known logical equivalences (building blocks)
and manipulate the expression. See page 24 for a list of
equivalences.
Some examples on white board
1.3 Predicates & Quantification
Let’s consider statements with variables: x > 3.
x is the subject.
>3 is the predicate or property of the subject.
We introduce a propositional function, P(x), that denotes x>3.
If X has is a specific number, the function becomes a proposition (T or F).
example: P(2) = F, P(4) = T.
More generally, we can have “functions” of more than one variable.
For each input value it assigns either T or F.
example: Q(x,y) = ( x=y+3 ).
Q(1,2) = ( 1=2+3 ) = F
Q(3,0) =( 3=0+3)=T
1.3 Predicates and Quantification
We do not always have to insert specific values. We can make propositions
for general values in a domain (or universe of discourse):
This is called: quantification.
Universal Quantification: P(x) is true for all values of x in the domain: x P (x )
Existential Quantification: There exists an element x in the domain such that
P(x) is true: x P (x )
example: domain x is real numbers. P(x) is x > -1.
x P (x )
x P (x)
(F : counter-example: x=-2)
(T)
example: domain is positive real numbers, P(x) is x>-1.
(T)
x P (x )
(T)
x P (x)
1.3 Binding & negations
A variable is bound if it has a value or a quantifier is “acting” on it.
A statement can only become a proposition if all variables are bound.
example: x
Q( x, y ) x is bound, y is free.
The scope of a quantifier is the part of the statement on which it is acting.
example:
x ( P( x)  Q( x))  y R( y )
scope x
scope y
We can also negate propositions with quantifiers.
Two important equivalences:
some examples
on white board
x P ( x)  x P ( x)
It is not the case that for all x P(x) is true = there must be an x for which P(x) is not true
 x P ( x)  x P ( x)
It is not true that there exists an x for which P(x) is true = P(x) must be false for all x