Running Head: EFFECTS OF THE OUTDOORS ON ADOLESCENT DEVELOPMENT
Daniel Schiff
Endicott College
The Effects of Outdoor Education on Adolescent Development
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Abstract
In the United States, between 1997 to 2003, there was a decline of nearly
fifty percent of children, age nine to twelve, who spent time engaging in outside
activities such as hiking, walking, fishing, playing on the beach, and gardening
(Louv, p. 68). This, coupled with the fact that “longer use of the internet is related
to increased depression, loneliness, and smaller social circles” (Valkenberg &
Peter, 2009), suggests that the increased time adolescents spend “plugged in” is
having significant negative effects on mental well-being. Louv argues that
children are being raised with a fear of the outdoors, and that more play in parks,
mountains, and beaches could help trigger social, intellectual, and character
development according to many different types of psychological development
theories.
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If you ask any outdoor professional or enthusiast, they will tell you that
children spend too much time using technology and too little time playing
outside now a days. The loss of opportunities for outdoor play is a plague, which
is robbing children of their creativity, curiosity, and social skills, as well as their
connections to the natural world. While the number of obese children has
quadrupled in the last forty years in the United States of America (Louv, p. 71)
and the rate at which American children below the age of 18 are prescribed antidepressants has almost doubled in the last five years (Johnson, p. 93), it is
apparent that the United States is breeding a generation of unhappy, anxious, out
of shape children. While numerous factors could, of course be used to explain
these trends, Richard Louv (2008) coins the term nature deficit disorder in his
book, The Last Child In The Woods. Louv states that the direct effects of this
disorder are “diminished uses of senses, attention difficulties, and higher rates of
physical and emotional illnesses” (p. 70). Marano (2008) states that adolescence
is lasting well in to people’s late twenties and thirties as they struggle to find a
job, move out of their parents’ homes, and begin meaningful relationships. With
the slowing down of adolescent self-discovery due to numerous factors, such as
new technology, overinvolved parents, childhood obesity, and a lack of play, it is
apparent that outdoor education remains an effective avenue in children’s lives
to positively affect self-worth, self-esteem, self-discovery, and selfdetermination.
In 2005, the American Institute for Research released a study of 255 atrisk sixth graders from four California schools, who attended three outdoor
education programs over one semester. The students participated in both
structured, as well as unstructured, time in the woods during the three
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programs, where they took part in collaborative ropes courses, science lessons,
group hikes, as well as were given time to simply explore on their own. The
findings of the survey showed a “27 percent increase in measured mastery of
science concepts; enhanced cooperation and conflict resolution skills; gains in
self-esteem, problem solving, motivation to learn, and classroom behavior”
(American Institute for Research) when compared to their pre-observation
ratings. According to Piaget’s theory of development stages, during the formal
operational stage, which usually takes place during adolescence, teenagers begin
to contemplate concepts hypothetically. They typically use the processes of
deduction, by involving abstract thought, metacognition, and problem solving.
Given that this outdoor education study involved discovery, teamwork, learning,
and contemplation, as the sixth graders participated in ropes courses, science
lessons, and unstructured time to simply be outside, Piaget’s principals were
certainly in play.
A meta-analysis, which compiled the results from twenty-two studies
about the effects of outdoor education on adolescents, measured various
categories of student growth after outdoor education experiences, using both pre
as well as post-tests. In this meta-analysis, Neill (2002) ensured that he used
longitudinal studies, which measured correlation over an extended time. The
most affected aspects immediately after the outdoor programs were students’
problem solving skills, leadership, maturity, and interpersonal communication
skills. Especially in adolescent boys, who struggle with emotional maturity, this
meta-analysis implies that there is a lot of room for personal growth by taking
part in outdoor education experiences. The long-term view of the effectiveness of
outdoor education on adolescent development found that self-worth and self-
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efficacy had the most long lasting effects. All of the categories studied, which
includes leadership, self-concept, academic, personality, inter-personal skills,
and sense of adventure, all had positive, long-lasting effects on the participants
as a whole.
In a generation where fewer and fewer adolescents have access or
interest in being involved in outdoor, experiential education, rates of depression
and mental illness are at all-time highs in the United States of America (Johnson).
Louv finds that “the exposure to nature may reduce the symptoms of Attention
Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD), and that it can improve children’s
cognitive abilities and resistance to negative stress and depression.” (p. 70). A
2003 study from Cornell University, finds that the stressful moments of
adolescents’ lives appear to not cause as much psychological distress for those
who live in rural communities with more access to the outdoors, as compared to
children who live in urban areas (p. 95). The study demonstrates that the rural
children have higher visions of self-worth, as well as less behavioral and
emotional disorders, such as anxiety and depression. It is concluded that those
who live in areas with access to green space, have more opportunities for
meaningful social interaction, as well as more opportunities for healthy
independence and solitary thought. Erickson’s fifth stage of adolescent
development (1997) concerns the battle between identity and diffusion in the
minds of adolescents. Adolescents are searching to develop a differentiated, as
well as individuated sense of identity, and success in this area leads to a strong
sense of self worth. Exposing students to more outdoor education, as well as
time in green space could play a significant role in developing this Ericksonian
sense of identity in adolescents searching for self-worth.
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Lev Vygotsky’s constructivist ideas of social development considered play
one of the most meaningful opportunities for development in young children.
“Through play, children develop in the areas of creativity, problem solving, logic,
social skills, and language acquisition” (Cross, p. 67). According to Cross (2012),
“play allows children to try behaviors, thoughts, experiences, roles, and skills out
at a level above their normal cognitive level” (p. 78). In his book, the Power of
Play (2007), David Elkin states that play, love, and work reach an equilibrium
during adolescence, as teens establish more meaningful relationships. A fresh
interest in learning and play become more important to the adolescents, as
children “realize their creative potential by creating, performing, and playing” (p.
10).
While it is apparent that play is as important as ever in the lives of
adolescents, too many are turning to technology, rather than playing outside, as
their outlets for fun and exploration. Louv insists that parents need to encourage
more healthy boredom in their children by ensuring they turn off the television
or close the computer, and spend more time with peers, a parent, or a positive
adult in the outdoors. Srivastava and Tiwari (2013) point out that excessive cell
phone and television usage have several detrimental side effects during
adolescent development. Children have already experienced significant drops in
concentration levels, as well as sleep patterns, due to the difficulty of unplugging
from their devices, which in turn can affect mental health, learning capacity, and
overall quality of life (p. 2). Louv encourages parents to find a healthy balance
between boredom and adult driven direction. Too much boredom can lead to
trouble for an adolescent, while too much parent-imposed structure can kill child
creativity.
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Elkind believes play helps form quality relationships between parents and
children through conversations, shared experiences, and shared passions during
the tumultuous adolescent years. A healthy family life is a crucial component to
identity development and self-worth during all aspects of a person’s life,
including adolescence. Louv insists that play in the outdoors teaches trust in
others, again creating healthy levels of socialization. Finally, it is important for
children to build a bond to a particular special place, where the adolescent will
be able to return to during tumultuous times during their lives.
While it is becoming apparent that play and time outdoors is more and
more important for the average disengaged, emotionally underdeveloped
American adolescent, unfortunately, American schools are devoting less time
and resources to play. In a comparison between the United States and Finland,
one of the world’s most progressive, effective educational systems, Alvarez
(2004) reports some astonishing facts and figures. Finland has been the highest
country in the world in terms of child literacy, as well as in the top five in both
math and science scores. Finnish students do not enter school until the age of
seven, there is no tracking for gifted versus non-gifted students, and the country
manages to accomplish all of these facts while spending less money per student
than the United States does. Teachers have more leeway in how they teach,
including specifically play. While the U.S. as a whole is decreasing time for recess,
in Helsinki, elementary students play for fifteen minutes after every forty-five
minute lesson. Finnish students have proven to have greater respect and trust in
their adult teachers, as well as more enthusiasm for environment-based, outdoor
education.
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Louv recommends a variety of personal, as well as educational reforms
which can help parents, teachers, and school boards create more time for the
outdoors, which could help foster healthy emotional develop in adolescents.
Little Falls High School in Minnesota reported that students in their
environmental-based program had 54 percent fewer suspensions than the other
students in the school, and within two years or instituting the program in the
entire school, the number of 560 disciplinary referrals had dropped
astonishingly to 50 (p. 372). Louv recommends schools and teachers to begin
environmental clubs or classes, which use nature as their classroom. Having
gardens, researching natural history, and using rivers, mountains, or beaches as
sources for environmental research are all opportunities for teachers to involve
more play and discovery in the natural world for their students. Parents should
recommend a good summer camp program for their children with good
environmental opportunities, especially when living in an urban city center. At a
summer camp, in addition to fostering social growth as well as a connection to a
specific natural area or outdoor sport, children will learn curiosity through
experiential learning and will learn natural consequences, such as when it rains,
they will need a raincoat, or when it is hot, they should have a full water bottle
with them.
Conclusion
Quantitatively, I was eager to peruse the research concerning the effects
of experiential, outdoor education on adolescent development. From years of
qualitative, first hand observations, I had of course internally formulated and
proven my hypothesis that while resistant or hesitant in many cases to spend
time outdoors, when children take part in classes, sports, free time or travel, they
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grow more profoundly connected to the natural world, their peers, and their
teachers than otherwise possible in a classroom.
Having taken kids rock climbing in North Carolina, surfing in Costa Rica,
backpacking in Nepal, camping in Belgium, and trekking in Peru, it is apparent to
me that students grow more confident in themselves, become better
communicators, and foster deeper connections when in real-life scenarios with
their classmates outside. I continually see students rise to meet challenges and
work more effectively with their peers when they are outside, either playing or
working on an initiative, which in turn develops confidence, a sense of self, and
passions. All of this does in fact seem not as important as the sheer joy of
watching an adolescent surf their first wave, snowboard on their first powder
day, or emerge from their tent in the morning under a snowy peak or
rhododendron forest. The sheer potential for play, discovery, creative
exploration, and challenge is truly second to none in the outdoors.
Combining the qualitative observations I have made over my ten years as
an outdoor professional with the quantitative research substantiating these
claims creates a complete picture in my mind. When looking at these facts in line
with the developmental theories of Erickson, Vygotsky, and Piaget, it answers
the question of why the outdoors are such an important and effective means of
educating adolescents and providing them with the space to simply be kids.
Technology, such as iPhones, iPads, television, and computers are creating a
hurdle for children to become invested and passionate about nature. However,
the devices themselves are not the problem, the problem is the dependency
created on these devices and the lack of experience our children have with them.
When the world learns that it is physically, emotionally, and psychologically
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healthier to unplug and invest time and energy in our surroundings, I believe we
will live in a happier, healthier, more connected society.
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References
Alvarez, L. (2004). Flocking to Finland, land of literate children. New York
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Cross, A. (2012). Nature sparks: Connecting children's learning to the natural
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Effects of outdoor education programs for children in California. (2005). Paolo
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Elkind, D. (2007). The power of play. Cambridge: Da Capo Lifelong Books.
Erikson, E. H., & Erikson, J. M. (1998). The life cycle completed. WW Norton &
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Johnson, L. (2004). Behavior drugs top kids’ prescriptions. Associated Press.
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disorder. Chapel Hill, N.C.: Algonquin Books.
Marano, H. E. (2008). A nation of wimps: The high cost of invasive parenting. New
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Neill, J.T. (2002). Meta-analytic research on the outcomes of outdoor education.
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