Maps + Spatial Data (TODALSIGss + SD)
AP Human Geography Unit: Geography: Its Nature and Perspectives
Overview
Early in the first unit of the course, students engage in the nature of geography by thinking about
maps in which they find an interest. Although electronic maps are ubiquitous, students are still
engaged with traditional maps, especially within their textbooks and on the APHG exam as it
currently exists. In particular, students still need to be able to decipher what a map contains and
what it does not, analyze the data provided in a map, and converse about maps. Conversing about
maps requires the requisite vocabulary. Interpreting and conversing about maps is crucial for
success on the APHG exam and as a geographically-informed and geographically-enabled person.
Time
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Opening: 10-minute whole class discussion
Developing: 30-minutes, which can be either in or out of class
Closing: 30 minutes (10 for the partnership discussion, 10 for quick discussions of maps,
and 10 for a whole class discussion)
Assessment: 20-minute free response question (in-class by students) with additional time for
completion of scoring guides by students, peers, and teacher
Preparation

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Decide on a source for the maps students will analyze. (See Developing the Lesson.)
Provide access to the TODALSIGss + Spatial Data handout.
AP Course Connections
From the Course Description
I.
Geography: Its Nature and Perspectives
A.
Geography as a field of inquiry
D.
Key geographical skills
1.
How to use and think about maps and spatial data
Vocabulary
author
cartographer
date
geographic question
grid
index
key
latitude
legend
longitude
map
orientation
pattern
perception
scale
site
situation
source
spatial data
synthesis
title
Geography Standards and Skills
Skills
 Ask geographic questions
 Acquire, organize, and analyze geographic information
 Answer geographic questions
These skills when delineated further are:
 Ask: Identifies substantial geographic issues & problems
 Acquire: Systematically, accurately, & thoroughly locates & gathers geographic information
from a variety of primary & secondary sources
 Organize: Selects & designs elaborate and/or multiple forms of maps, graphs, diagrams,
tables, & charts to organize geographic information
 Analyze: Thoroughly & extensively uses complex processes of analysis, synthesis,
evaluation & explanation to interpret geographic information from a variety of sources
 Answer: Formulates valid, complex generalizations from the results of a full array of
geographic inquiry methods
Geography for Life Standards
 How to use maps and other geographic representations, tools, and technologies to acquire,
process, and report information from a spatial perspective
Geographic Questions



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Do you understand what a map is saying?
Can you interpret spatial data contained on a map?
What tools do you need to both understand what a map is saying and interpret the map’s
spatial data?
Do you understand what the cartographer is trying to say or do with the map?
Opening the Learning Opportunity
Conduct an open class discussion on maps as tools of geographers.
 Why are maps such important tools for geographers? Why are they the most important tool
for thinking spatially?
 How do maps help geographers use and think about maps and spatial data?
 What are sources of data that becomes maps?
 Why is it an important skill for APHG students to be able to read and think about maps?
Ask students to stand at and “pull-down” a map of the world (an imaginary blank map of the
world). Then ask them some specific questions, such as:
 Draw a mental map of the world using rectangles, triangles, and circles.
 Can you project a political map of the world? How many states can you see on this political
map?
 Draw a mental map of the Islamic world. Does that mental map include the U.S.? Should
it?
NATIONAL COUNCIL FOR GEOGRAPHIC EDUCATION—AP Human Geography
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Can you project both a map of OPEC and petroleum transportation routes (flows) on a
mental map of the world? Where are these countries and these flows? Draw them on your
pull-down map.
Can you project a map of drought-prone areas of the world and envision the map of the
refugee flows produced by such droughts and accompanying famines? Draw the map.
Explain that in the coming activities they will explore maps in order to enhance the atlas of the mind
(the maps stored in their thinking) and the ways in which geographers think about maps and use
spatial data found on maps.
Developing the Learning Opportunity
As with any assignment the way it is implemented in the end depends on the professional expertise
of the teacher and the context of the teaching and learning.
(1) One way to implement this learning opportunity is to assign it as a homework assignment.
(2) Another way is for the teacher to bring in a bunch of traditional maps and let students
choose maps to explore. Static maps may also be found in the course textbook and on free
response questions for previous years of the APHG exam. (When there are free response
items on the APHG exam which include the analysis of spatial data, they are generally drawn
from maps from one of the major APHG textbooks.)
(3) A third way to do the lesson to offer the students a chance to explore digital maps in the
classroom. There are innumerable digital maps available. Some sources are:
a. Your textbook website.
b. http://memory.loc.gov/ammem/gmdhtml/gmdhome.html
The Library of Congress’ American Memory Map Collections starting page is a good
place to start. Students may be interested in finding a map that corresponds to local,
regional, or family history for this assignment.
c. http://www.loc.gov/today/placesinthenews/
The Places in the News section of the LOC Map Collections offers another focal
point for searching for maps.
d. http://www.lib.utexas.edu/maps/
The Perry-Castañeda Library Map Collection at the University of Texas offers a host
of digital maps.
e. http://www.davidrumsey.com/
David Rumsey’s map collection is a popular online site.
f. http://www.newberry.org/collections/mapoverview.html
The Newberry Library has a number of digitized maps.
g. http://content.wsulibs.wsu.edu/cdm-maps/
Students and teachers in Pacific Northwest may find interest in the Early
Washington Maps at the University of Washington website.
h. http://www.nla.gov.au/digicoll/maps.html
The National Library of Australia hosts a digital map website containing over 10,000
digital maps.
i. http://atlas.nrcan.gc.ca/site/english/maps/archives
The Map Archives of the Atlas of Canada offer historical maps of Canada.
NATIONAL COUNCIL FOR GEOGRAPHIC EDUCATION—AP Human Geography
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Explain to students that they need to find a map and analyze it using the TODALSIGss + Spatial
Data analysis.
Concluding the Learning Opportunity
After students have found and analyzed their maps, have them meet in pairs to discuss their maps.
As a quick culmination of the activity, have as many students as possible (this could even be just half
of the class) to share their partner’s map with the class by stating a geographic question that the
map answers and the answer to that geographic question.
Assessment
For the map analysis students complete, use a portion of the Geographic Skills Scoring Guide (See
Refugees lesson) to assess their ability to ask and answer geographic questions with an
accompanying checbric to assess the completeness of their TODALSIGss analysis. This introduces
students to the geographic skills to be used in subsequent lessons.
TODALSIGss + Spatial Data Scoring Guide
Checbric
Partial attention to the
TODALSIGss
o T
o O
o D
o A
o L
o S
o I
o G
o s
o s
Complete attention to the
TODALSIGss
o T
o O
o D
o A
o L
o S
o I
o G
o s
o s
SKILL
Asks Geographic
Questions
Progressing Toward Standard
o Partially specifies geographic
question
o Specifies general geographic
question
Analyzes Geographic
Information
o Makes inferences and draws
limited conclusions from maps
o Makes inferences and draws general
conclusions from maps
Answers
Geographic
Questions
o Formulates sketchy
generalizations from the results
of asking a geographic question
o Formulates valid generalizations
from the results of asking a
geographic question
Meets Standard
Detailed attention to the
TODALSIGss
o T
o O
o D
o A
o L
o S
o I
o G
o s
o s
Exceeds Standard
o Specifies detailed geographic
question (includes the spatial
nature of the data in the map)
o Makes inferences and draws
sophisticated conclusions from
maps
o Formulates advanced and valid
generalizations from the results
of asking a geographic question
Then use a free-response question to assess students’ individual knowledge. The free-response item
can be used as a homework assignment, in-class assignment, or as part of a test. I often give
practice free-response items in class with a 20-minute time limit to replicate the time constraints of
the actual AP exam.
Free-response questions from previous APHG exams that include map analysis and interpretation
of spatial data include:
 2011--Primate city question
 2011--Automobile factories question
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 2010--Ethanol manufacturing plants
 2009--Religion question: map of US
 2008--Migration within U.S.
 2006--World migration patterns
The website giving access to these questions and their scoring guidelines is:
http://apcentral.collegeboard.com/apc/members/exam/exam_information/2004.html
Assign one or more of these questions as note above and analyze the students’ individual responses
as well as those of the examples given online.
Discuss:
 What are the three most important elements of maps to pay attention to when interpreting
maps?
 What promotes success in interpreting spatial data?
 What is the use of maps and spatial data the first skill noted in the APHG course outline
under “Key geographical skills”?
 What is the most challenging aspect of interpreting spatial data?
If students cannot wholly answer the questions due to the type of content of the map or the spatial
data (i.e. regarding industrial location), note the instruction to follow in subsequent units but take
time to introduce the concepts that are to follow.
Teaching Note
Due to the nature of spatial data and its importance in geography and throughout the APHG course,
you will find seven mini-lessons in this document that emphasize spatial data and its interpretation
through online mapping.
NATIONAL COUNCIL FOR GEOGRAPHIC EDUCATION—AP Human Geography
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Spatial
data
Maps
APHG
topics
Geographical
literacy
Source: APHG Course Outline
Synthesis
Success on the APHG exam requires the ability to synthesize ideas from across units of the APHG
course. This lesson can be used at any time throughout the course: in the first unit or in any of the
subsequent units. Notice how the APHG Free Response questions use synthesis. For example, the
primate city question from 2011 requires students to (1) read and interpret a map and a chart, (2)
analyze spatial data, (3) understand in-depth concepts from the urban unit (both primate city and
rank-size rule), and (4) infuse related economic development concepts.
Review
Besides as a lesson for the first unit of the course and for repetition throughout the course in its
various units, this lesson can also be used for review. This will prepare students for Free Response
questions that require the interpretation of spatial data.
References
Bednarz, Sarah, et al. Geography for Life: The National Geography Standards. Washington, DC: National
Geographic Society, 1994.
deBlij, H. J., Murphy, Alexander B., and Fouberg, Erin H. Human Geography: People, Place, and Culture.
New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 2007.
 Chapter 1 (Introduction to Human Geography)
Getis, Arthur, Getis, Judith, and Fellman, Jerome D. Introduction to Geography. 11th Edition. Boston:
McGraw Hill, 2008.
NATIONAL COUNCIL FOR GEOGRAPHIC EDUCATION—AP Human Geography
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 Chapter 1 (Introduction)
 Chapter 2 (Maps)
Greiner, Alyson. Visualizing Human Geography: At Home in a Diverse World. New York: John Wiley
& Sons, Inc., 2011.
 Chapter 1 (What is Human Geography?)
Knox, Paul L. and Marston, Sallie A. Places and Regions in Global Context: Human Geography. 4th
Edition. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson/Prentice Hall, 2007.
 Chapter 1 (Geography Matters)
Lanegran, David. “Results from the 2011 AP Human Geography Exam Administration.”
Presentation. AP Annual Conference, July 2011, San Francisco, California.
Murphy, Alec. “Changing the World Through AP Human Geography.” Presentation. National
Conference on Geographic Education, August 6, 2011, Portland, Oregon.
Rubenstein, James. The Cultural Landscape: An Introduction to Human Geography. 9th Edition. Upper
Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall, 2008.
 Chapter 1 (Thinking Geographically)
Smothers-Marcello, Jody. “A Proposal for Assessment in Geography Education.” Journal of
Geography, Volume 108: 4-5, July-October 2009, pp. 226-232.
Smothers-Marcello, Jody. Teaching Map Skills: An Active Learning Approach. Washington, DC:
National Council for Geographic Education, 2007.
NATIONAL COUNCIL FOR GEOGRAPHIC EDUCATION—AP Human Geography
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TODALSIGss Plus Spatial Data
Letter
Associated
Word(s)
title
Description for Teacher Explanation
Questions to Ask
 A good title describes what a map shows, where the
place or area is, and often the time period portrayed by
the map.
O
orientation
 This word, which is derived from the Latin word oriens
meaning sunrise or east, refers to the principal
geographic directions on the map (N and sometimes E,
S, and W) by means of an arrows or compass rose.
General or geographical orientation may not be
necessary if the map includes a geographical grid, or if
the area’s shape is so familiar that map users readily
recognize its orientation. Sometimes, location or
relative orientation may be equally important: which
way (and how far) is town, downtown, school, or a
friend’s house from the neighborhood or area shown
on map.
D
date
 When was the map made? This information helps
users to judge the relative accuracy of the map. How
long ago was the map made? How long was it made
after the time period shown by its title? Can the map
still be used even if it is old?
A
author
 Who made the map? Knowing who made the map
helps map readers to evaluate its reliability and tells
them whom to contact if they discover errors on the
map. Sometimes the author is noted as a company,
government agency, or organization rather than an
individual. What are other names used to describe
map authors? Cartographers, mapmakers, and
designers are some of the terms used to describe map
authors.
L
legend or key
 A legend or key shows the meaning of symbols used
on a map whose meaning is not absolutely clear or
which are not labeled on the maps. Map symbols are
not always self-explanatory because they may be
interpreted to mean several things (i.e., $ could
represent both a store, a bank, or an ATM location).
 What does the map show?
 Where is the place?
 What is the time period
portrayed by the map?
 How does this
information relate to the
spatial data shown on the
map?
 What are the principal
geographical directions of
the map?
 Does the map have a
compass rose or another
way of showing
orientation?
 What direction is to the
top of the map?
 Is the orientation
important for
understanding the map
and/or its spatial data?
 When was the map made?
 How long ago was the
map made?
 Is it still reliable?
 What has changed since
the map was printed?
 Who made the map?
 Was it an individual or a
team of people?
 Is this a commercially
produced map?
 Is the
author/cartographer
important to
understanding the map?
 Does the map have a
legend (key) that clearly
shows the meaning of the
symbols?
 What symbols are
included in the legend?
 What is the link between
the legend and the spatial
data? Can the spatial data
be interpreted without the
legend? What is the most
critical aspect of the
legend?
T
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S
scale
 What distance does a unit of measure represent in the
area actually shown on the map? Scale may be
expressed verbally, as a ratio, or in graphic form.
I
index
 The index is an alphabetical list of places shown on a
given map with a grid or set of maps that also gives the
grid address of each place listed. The index addresses
may or may not be listed by latitude and longitude.
The map index is similar to the gazetteer in atlases.
grid
 A grid is a set of intersecting lines that provide a map
address or a way of describing the location of particular
places on a map. Two kinds of grid systems are
commonly used: (1) A simple arbitrary system is often
used on city street maps or highway system maps. (2)
A geographical grid system is often used in atlases and
on other maps showing large areas of the world. The
geographical grid system is also useful for orienting
maps.
s
source
 The source of map information not obtained from the
direct experience or observation of the mapmaker.
s
situation
 A situation map is often added to a map to show where
a place is in relation to a larger or smaller area of the
world (i.e., a map of Alaska may have a small map of
North America as an inset in order to show its correct
geographical position on the continent).
G
 Is there a map scale?
 What distance does a unit
of measure represent in
the area actually shown on
the map?
 How is the scale
expressed: verbally as a
ratio or in graphic form?
 Is the scale important for
interpreting the spatial
data of the map?
 Does the map have an
alphabetical list of places
shown and the grid
address of those places?
 Is an index important to
this map?
 Does the map have a set
of intersecting lines that
provides a map address?
 Is the grid an arbitrary
system or
latitude/longitude system?
 Do I need the grid to
interpret the spatial data?
 Where did the
information to make the
map originate?
 Do I need to know the
source to interpret that
spatial data?
 Does the map show the
situation of the place in
relation to a larger or
smaller region or the
world?
 Do I need a situation map
to interpret the map? Can
I create a situation map in
my head that helps to
interpret the map?
The elements of the map help introduce the map to us, but what makes maps the most important
tools for geographers are not the elements of the map, but what the is contained in the map. What
does the map tell us about the real world? What spatial data is contained within the map? Thus, in
any map analysis, we need to add a category for spatial data.
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S
D
spatial data
Spatial data is the essence of the map. Look back to
the title, legend, and date. What do these elements
say about the type of spatial data contained in the
map?
NATIONAL COUNCIL FOR GEOGRAPHIC EDUCATION—AP Human Geography
What spatial data is
shown within the map?
What are the patterns
that arise from the
spatial data?
What can you infer or
conclude from the
patterns of the spatial
data?
What geographic
questions does this
map answer?
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