Methodology –
Getting
Started.
Where do you start?
Your
hypothesis may
influence your choice
of methodology.
Other factors influencing your choice of
method(s) are:
 Time
and therefore money.
 Access to data.
 Situational constraints – ie the fact
that you are but ‘A’ level students.
 Previous research.
Other factors influencing your choice of
method(s) are
phenomena at hand – it may
lend itself to a particular method.
‘The White Haired Offender’Azrini Wahidin that claims:
‘Methods are informed and shaped
by the research.’
 The
Epistemological assumptions.

What knowledge is valid? The study of the nature
of knowledge.

‘Sociology and Science’ (Sociology Review
February 2000) comments on the Positivists
approach: ‘Positivists argue that…human
behaviour is a response to observable social
conditions…that social behaviour is determined
and can be explained in terms of cause and effect
relationships.’
Epistemological assumptions.

Ken Browne However argues …(Interpretavist
phonological view): ‘Human behaviour cannot be
predicted with certainty. People might react differently to
the same circumstance on a different occasion- not
everyone facing the same set of circumstance will commit
suicide.’

In Sociology Review’s ‘The White Haired Offender’ Azrini
Wahidin says: ‘To understand the meaning and motives of
social action is the goal of researchers- and this is only
possible by using qualitative data.’
Durkheim’s ‘Rules of Sociological Method’
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Emile Durkheim’s ‘Rules of Sociological
Method’, set out the phenomena to be
studied and the ways to study them.
Le Suicide, researched the phenomena of
suicide.
Durkheim’s aim being that he could prove
that even the most individualistic action
could be correlated to society.
Durkheim’s ‘Rules of Sociological Method’

However research was heavily criticised for
not interrogating the statistics supplied to
him by coroners from around Europe.
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Do you want to follow Durkheim’s lead by
relying on empirical qualitative data?
This is not an effective way of researching
respondent’s emotions and their subjective
view on the issue.
Participant Observation
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An unethical research method?
Practical constraints
Weber advocated the concept of Verstehen
that is where one would attempt to become
closely attached to the subjects of study in
an attempt to begin to understand how these
individuals interpret things that are around
him. One develops an “Empathy”.
Studies …
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Humphrey’s ‘Tearoom Trade’ took this type of
view on researching homosexuality behaviour.
Paul Willis ‘Learning to Labour’ studied a small
male group from a school. The problems with this
research was gaining entry into the institution, it
took six months of discussion with the headmaster
before he could gain entry.
PO has it advantages and many consider it as true
sociology. “As I sat and listened I learnt the
answers to the questions that I would not have had
the sense to ask.”
Participant Observation - Advantages.

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Social behaviour is in it’s natural setting.
Offers the chance for small scale detailed
research.
Gives validity to the meanings that actors
attach to their actions.
Constructs the world according to the
actor’s norms \ values \ language.
It may be used prior to a survey to establish
relevant questions.
Participant Observation - Disadvantages.
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Researcher becomes too involved and a poor
observer.
As the study group is not representative
generalisations are not possible. (Bothered?)
Recording information is problematic.
Is it ethical - Humphreys argued that research is
unethical if :
– the sociologist misrepresents their identity to gain information.
– The sociologist breaks confidence.
– The research has negative consequences for those being studied.
Participant Observation - Disadvantages.
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It may be physically dangerous for the
observer.
It may take a long time to get in, stay in, get
out.
Can a researcher ever lose their identity and
study a group objectively?
The observers presence will change group
dynamics + therefore behaviour.
Structured Interviews
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Is there the possibility of building up a
conversation with the person?
In Sociology Reviews article ‘ Which Research
Interview’ Andy Hobson claims that: ‘It is much
easier (compared to other methods) for
researchers/interviewees to get at what they want
and ensure that all aspects of the research agenda
are covered.’
However Andy Hobson goes on to say: ‘The
degree of structure involved might influence the
respondents perspective and responses.’
Structured Interviews
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Another major problem with unstructured (and even
structured) interviews is that those responding many not
give an accurate or truthful response because they are
attempted to impress or please the researcher.
This is called the ‘Halo Effect’ and may indeed affect the
final results.
Andy Hobson comments on the practicalities of
interviews: ‘Conduction of interviews can be a time
consuming activity, and that…often means that the sample
is not sufficiently large to allow generalisations.’ (This may
not be a problem if you do not wish to generate scientific
laws / macro sociology.)
Structured Interviews - Advantages.
one can establish a good rapport... honest
information can be obtained.
 people can speak for themselves.
 meanings behind actor’s actions can be
explored - rather than just discovering the
facts.
 A tape recorder can be referred back to at a
later date.
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Structured Interviews - Disadvantages.
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The success of the interview relies on the skill of
the interviewer.
Bias - NVC - prompts, follow up certain leads,
more than 1 interviewer = different biases.
Time consuming + expensive.
Samples are small.
refusal to be interviewed may skew sample.
The questions that you ask will construct the
reality you are attempting to investigate.
Secondary Data
 Official
Statistics.
 Mass Media
 Letters
 Diaries
 Previous Research.
Official Statistics
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Only reflect what has been reported to the
official agencies e.g., levels of rape \ free
school meals.
Advantages: Large sample sizes.
Information is easily available from the
Home Office or other govt dept.
Warning when using statistics: political bias
+ the statistics only reflecting the tips of the
iceberg.
Pilot Study
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Wilmot and Young in their study of ‘Family Life in
Bethnal Green’ began with a pilot study in order to pick
out on certain themes that repeatedly turned up in the
questionnaires, as well as gauging whether or the subject
was being truthful.
Pilot studies eradicate many problems with the
questionnaires. (Or other method)
The wording of the questions could be interpreted in
different ways by the respondent.
Respondents may be unwilling to discuss the issues with
you.
Internet
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In Sociology Review Volume 4 1997, and article entitled
‘Using the Internet for A’ level sociology discussed how the
Internet was an invaluable resource for a sociology student.
Ethically - it ensures confidentiality and emotional security.
However, due to the detachment of respondent and it would
be difficult to determine whether or not all individuals were
telling the truth in the information they send.
There is of course still the problem of the Halo effect were
individuals would perhaps know what kind of one is looking
for and thus this may lead them to certain responses.
A good internet site is
http://freespace.virgin.net/
chris.livesey/rload.htm
Triangulation
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Triangulation can be illustrated by a study
entitled ‘Belfast in the 30s: an Oral History
(Macdonald and Tipton 1993) they say this
on their study:
‘We systematically did a cross-method
triangulation, in that every piece of oral
evidence that could be, was checked against
a range of written sources.’
Triangulation
 Furthermore
Derran (1970) saw
triangulation as a way of
assessing the validity and
reliability of research and the
data and information it
highlights.
Triangulation
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Bremen continued to highlight ways in
which triangulation can be useful.
Firstly qualitative and quantative data can
be compared and checked against one
another to reach a confirmed conclusion.
Secondly, that each approach can be used
together to gain a more in depth complete
picture.
Triangulation

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Eileen Barker study of the unification
Church (otherwise known as the Moonies)
used participant observation, questionnaires
along with interviews.
She said this as the reasoning of her
combining the methods: ‘…See how the
movement as a whole was organised and
how it influenced the day to day actions and
interaction of its members.’
Triangulation - Advantages.

It is possible to gain both QUANTITATIVE
and QUALITATIVE data. thus overcoming
any ideological constraints re: methodology.

It is possible to check the reliability of different
sources.
It is possible to check that your own interpretation
is accurate.

Triangulation - Disadvantages.
 It
is time consuming.
 it is costly.
 some sociologists would argue
that some methods are
unacceptable from their
theoretical perspective.
Conclusion?
 Perhaps
the most important
part of the research is that
there is a capacity for it to be
replicated, to validate the
information that you collect.