MOTOR LEARNING
Learning
• “relatively permanent change in behaviour due to practice or experience”
• cannot be directly observed or measured; can only be inferred
• performance can be observed and therefore we can use this to infer learning
• however, performance can be affected by other factors, nutrition, arousal,
feedback, fatigue, etc.
Conditions required for learning:
1. must be provided with feedback
i.
Knowledge of Performance
•
ii.
2.
watching yourself – told what happened
Knowledge of Results (KR)
practice
Motor Learning
“a change in capability of the individual to perform a skill that must be inferred
from a relatively permanent improvement in performance as a result of practice
or experience”
Three Approaches to determining learning has occurred
1. observe changes in performance as skill being learned
2. retention tests
•
•
before and after
perform skill before and after ‘practice’ and observe change to infer learning
3. transfer tests
•
•
•
‘the biggy’
must use skill that has been practical in a new way  “real world” situations
changing environment
Three Phases of Skill Learning
Cognitive Phase  Associative Phase  Autonomous Phase  Practice Time 
Cognitive
• gain “understanding” of what the new skill entails
• close attention to cues, events, and response that will likely go unnoticed later
• instruction and demonstration are crucial
• lots of errors
Associative Phase
• integrate ideas from the first phase
• gradual elimination of errors
• length of phase depends on nature of the skill
Autonomous Phase
• extensive practice  advanced performance
• efficient, reduced error
• “automatic performance”
• less attention required (typing, piano, etc)
Autonomous Lab A-3-3 (colours vs. words)
Transfer
• old habits/new skills
 Positive Transfer  helps in new skill : handball  squash
t-ball  baseball
 Negative Transfer  hinders new skill : tennis  badminton
*** Affected by:
i.
context : similarity
ii.
complexity/organization
Physical Skill Progression – Levels of Motor Skill Learning
Complex
Specific
Refined
Performance
(individuating)
Skill
Diversification
Stage
Selection (smoothing
Fixation or
Practice
Stages
Combination (integrating & utilizing)
Simple
General
Discovery (coordinating & controlling)
Gross
General
Framework
Stages
Exploration (pre-control/getting the idea)
Performance
• basically, “an observable behaviour”
•
every/each motor skill is essentially a performance
• performance changes during learning: 2 performance characteristics are
important to look for
1. skill performance should improve over time
• ie. improvement should continue over a long period, such that they can not only do the skill
today, but next week etc.
2. performance should be increasingly more consistent
• ie. trial by trial or attempt to attempt, performance should reveal decreasing fluctuations
** does not mean learned skill will be performed perfectly every time
• means that the person has the increasing ability or potential to perform that
skill
Performance Curves
• plot progress made by person/groups of persons during/over time
• both performance improvement and performance consistency can be
observed here
• measured with performance on the “Y” axis and time on the “X” axis
a)
linear curve
•
learning occurred over
time proportionately
c) positive curve
• major learning occurred
late
b) negative curve
• large improvement early
then levelled off
d) ogive or s-shaped curve
• most learning occurred in
middle
Real Curves
General Information Processing Model (Proctor, Reeves, and Weeks, 1991)
Human
STIMULUS INPUT
STIMULUS
INDENTIFICATION
RESPONSE
TRANSLATION
AND SELECTION
RESPONSE
PROCESSING
MOVEMENT
OUTPUT
FEEDBACK
• skills must be organized spatially (correct order) re: with environment
• skills must be organized temporally (correct order)
• skills must be organized according to their musculature
Categories of Motor Skills
1.
Closed Motor Skills (open loop)
•
performed in constant, unchanging environment
•
performing a movement in a particular way is essential for success
eg. basketball free-throw, diving, gymnastics
MOVEMENT
CONTROL CENTRE
MOVEMENT
COMMAND
FEEDBACK
2. Open Motor Skills (closed loop)
•
must:
•
•
•
•
•
•
perceive the environment
decide necessary motor program
structure appropriate motor program
execute skill
evaluate the attempt
prepare for next event (anticipate)
MOVEMENT
COMMAND
MOVEMENT
CONTROL CENTRE
eg. hockey, basketball, volleyball
PURE CLOSED SKILLS
PURE OPEN SKILLS
volleyball
soccer
golf
high jump
diving
gymnastics
Why the distinction?
• crucial for determining how much information must be processed and therefore how much time
is required
• motor skill programming and execution requires a large amount of mental activity
Schema’s (R.A. Schmidt, 1975)
“a rule or set of rules that provide a basis for action decisions”
-we learn rules for classes of movements
-4 sources of information from each movement experience
i. initial conditions:
limb position, and environmental conditions
ii. response specifications: specific demands for given movement, speed, force, etc.
iii. sensory consequences: sensory feedback as a result of movement-during and after
iv. response outcome:
comparison of intended outcome with actual outcome
** these four sources form two general rules:
1. recall schema
2. recognition schema
*** first 50% of movement is not crucial for accuracy
Other Factors affecting movement (response)
1. sensory
2. perception (eg. colour differences)
3. ???
4. ????
Basic Understanding of Motor Learning
• generally, development proceeds cephalocaudally (head to feet)
ie. coordination and management of body parts occur in the upper body before
the lower
-therefore, we throw before we can kick
• AND, proximodistally (inside to outside)
ie. control over arm before hand
-therefore, we can reach before we can grasp
*development occurs from general to specific
-this holds true for skill acquisition
-gross motor movements are learned and mastered before fine ones
Factors Affecting Motor Learning
Readiness – suggests that the subject can learn and is ready to learn
• affected by maturity level, previous practice, prerequisite skills, body
management skills and physical fitness, interest level  generally and
specifically
Motivation – suggests that the subject wants to learn
• readiness is relatively physically dependant while motivation is psychological
• must have some drive to learn or little learning takes place
• fortunately, ‘physical education’ is associated with play and therefore motivation
is usually present
• knowing why something is being done assists in motivation
* motivation is tied to rewards
1. Extrinsic – visual or touchable reward for a success (trophy, prize)
2. Intrinsic – mental award – internalization of success (sinking of a basket)
- satisfaction of accomplishment
-ideally, a shift in extrinsic to intrinsic motivation should occur
Goals
• children (and all people) are better stimulated when a challenging and
attainable goal is present
• children specifically can get great satisfaction simply by being able to say
“I did it”
• the best learning takes place when the learner has some kind of input on
the goal at hand
Feedback and Reinforcement
• these are ‘modifying factors’ in the learning process
• detrimental effects can occur when the feedback is unpleasant or negative
Feedback
• refers to impressions, feelings or concepts that a child derives from learning experiences
• should provide information about technical correctness of movement and about accuracy or
adequacy of that response
Reinforcement
• implies a strengthening and shoring up of learning as a result of feedback
• reinforcement is important in shaping the learned behaviour
• positive reinforcement occurs when the learner receives something pleasant (attention, praise,
and encouragement) or when something unpleasant is taken away (peer pressure or constant
failure)
• whatever is reinforced often is maintained in the behaviour
Stress and Anxiety
• early on can be detrimental, but later on can be good
• stress in itself is not all bad
Transfer of Movement Learning
*previous discussions*
• a learner’s learning efficiency depends on how fast they can adapt previously learned
skills to new acquisition
• appears to be more transfer from fundamental skills (walking, jumping, hopping) to
specific skills that incorporate these skills
• in addition, transfer is more probably if the original skill is well-learned
• relates directly to Schmidt, 1975 and his Schema theories
• basically suggests learning under a wide range of conditions and over a wide variety of
situations as possible
Discret vs. Continuous skills – L.U. p. 50, 38
Purple p. 183, 196
Types of Practice
Whole vs. Part Learning
Whole Method – learning the whole or entire skill or activity in one shot
e. learning a skill from start to finish
effective?
depends on complexity of skill
depends on skill transfer
Part Method – involves learning parts of an activity separately until all parts are learned and then
combining the ‘parts’ to make a whole
effective?
again, complexity is key – if skill is simple enough this method may not be
practical
Types of Practice
Blocked vs. Random Practice
Blocked practice – refers to making all trials under the same conditions
effective?
good early on in most skills
good for closed skills
Random practice – refers to practice under varying conditions
effective?
good for open skills in autonomous stage
Types of Practice
Massed vs. Distributed Practice
Massed practice – reference to all totals trials in one block of time
effective?
complexity
Distributed practice – total trials spread out over a period in a determined block size
eg.
100 total trials
100 blocks of 1
4 blocks of 25 etc.
effective?
complexity
Stress/Anxiety level shown here by external stimulus likely to affect performance
Common Motor Learning Concepts
Activity Sheet: Motor Learning Concepts
Instructions
1. Students will be divided into three groups.
2. Each group will research one motor learning concept
• blocked versus random practice
• whole versus part learning
• massed versus distributed practice
3. Each group will select a new skill and a group of subjects (e.g., grade 9 class) for instruction
4. The subject group will be divided in half. Half will have the skill taught with one component of the
learning concept; and the other half will learn the skill with the other learning concept.
Example
Motor Learning Concept
Skill
Subject Group 1
Subject Group 2
• Basketball Lay-Up
• Tennis Serve
• Whole Learning
• Part Learning
• Basketball Foul Shooting
• Golf Putt
• Blocked Practice
• Random Practice
• Head Stands
• Set Shots
• Massed Practice
• Distributed Practice
The group will evaluate the effectiveness of both components of their motor
learning concept for their selected skill and level of learner. Students will present
their findings to the class.
Long Term Motor Learning
1. Continuous tasks, eg. Riding a bike
• participant determines start and end points
near perfect retention over long periods of time
 compact and repetitive
2. Discrete tasks, eg. Throwing a ball
• start and end points determined by nature of skill
less retention
3. Serial skills, eg. trailing/catching a ball
• series of discrete actions linked together
Reaction Time
• not to be confused with movement time
Reaction time (RT) – time required to start movement from stimulus of signal
Movement time (MT) – time required to complete task
WARNING SIGNAL
STIMULUS SIGNAL
INITIATION OF RESPONSE
COMPLETION OF TASK
FORE PERIOD
TIME
REACTION TIME (RT)
MOVEMENT TIME (MT)
Simple RT
Stimulus Lights
Response Keys
Red
Index Finger
Choice RT
Discrimination RT
Red
Blue
Green
Index
Middle
Ring
Red Blue Green
Index Finger
Theory into Instructional Practice
Instructional
Processes
1
Skill Analysis
2
Assess Learning
3
4
Design Instruction
Evaluate Instruction
1. Skill Analysis
- consider
a)
b)
c)
d)
e)
f)
objective of skill?
KR, KP, practice
relevant stimuli – what are things in the environment that give people information about what to do,
how and when to do it
•
duration and intensity of stimuli
•
number of stimuli
response selection requirements
•
criteria to determine response
•
sequence
•
reaction time type (simple, choice, discrimination)
movement requirements in terms of moving
•
consistency
•
accuracy
•
continuity (discrete vs. continuous)
available feedback
•
supplementing KR, KP, etc
•
amount
•
quality
arousal level
•
optimal?
2. Assess Learning and Set Goals
a) terminal goals (long term)
• base on learner’s proficiency (usually)
b) current proficiency
• what can individual already do?
• pre-tests
• possible transfer
c) intermediate goals
• ‘progress reports’
• individual and motivational
• flexible
3. Design Instruction
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Structure environment
Establish purpose
Emphasize skill essentials
Enhance retention
Provided practice opportunities
Improve performance
4. Evaluate Instruction
1. best environment?
2. best practice situation?
3. best feedback?
Cognitive Phase
Autonomous Phase
Progression of Skill Development
Skill development in sport may be described as progressing through the following stages:
Perceiving
movements are those in which participants become aware of and come to
understand the fundamental positions, stances and patterns of their sport
Patterning
movements are those in which participants execute the components of
movement in the correct order – but usually in an awkward and
unsynchronized manner
Adapting
movements are those in which participants modify selected movements to
perform them under different conditions and in different locations
Refining
movements are those in which movements are smooth and efficient and are
consistent under more complex conditions
Varying
movements are those in which participants invent personal responses to
competitive situations – at this level, these responses are limited to different
ways of performing specific movements and the result of the immediate
situation
Improvising
movements are those in which participants invent responses on the spur of the
moment
Composing
movements are personal interpretations of movements OR personal
combinations of movement into unique motor patterns – composing
movements are the ultimate movements of sport – the creations of the
superstars of sport
Practice under practice conditions is imperfect – practice under competitive conditions is what
coaches should plan for.
A Big OW-IE-IE!
Doctors at a boxing medical conference in Aruba say there is no documented
evidence that the sport is more dangerous for women than for men. The case
histories aren’t there”, Virginia orthopedic surgeon Joseph Estwanic said. “The
hard research has yet to be done”.
What’s to research?
The repercussions of boxing are simple.
"Get hit in the head, it hurts.
"Get hit in the head again, you don't care if it hurts.
"Get hit in the head again, you don't know if it hurts.
"Get hit in the head again, and you can't tell anyone, even if you know it hurts.
"Then you die."
A Workin’ Man
When Ken Griffey’s new $34-million, four-year contract
kicks in next year, Baseball America has it figured out that
it will take him exactly five innings to earn the equivalent
of the average elementary school teacher; 2 ½ innings to
match the salary of a waitress; 3 ½ innings to match the
average clergyman; 5 ½ innings to make the average
policeman’s salary; 12 ½ innings to match the average
lawyer; and 16 innings to make as much as the average
doctor. It will however, take him about 25 games to make
as much as the average ball player.
Toronto Sun, October 1996
The Last Word – Keeping Score – Bill Lankhof
Tara Lipinski became the sports wordl’s newest darling
this weekend. The tiny Texan is 14-years-old, and the
world women’s figure skating champion.
Poor kid.
“Isn’t she just so cute,” cry all the people. And, the whole
world laps up the warm and fuzzy tale about the little kid
who could.
If the story were to end there, it would be quite all right.
But the story rarely ends there. For Tara Lipinski, as
numerous child sports prodigies can attest, the story is
just beginning. Most often, the ending is not a happy on.e
The Toronto Sun, March 24, 1997