October 29 – December 11

• Worked with Rutherford
• Discovered different types of radiation
• Nobel Prize in chemistry
• Started writing books about economics instead o People thought he was a crackpot, but his ideas are used today o Predicted that economy would run on fossil fuels instead of gold
• Was going to have an element named after him, but
“Soddyium” sounds like sodium

• Wanted to be a writer; twin sister a painter
• Friend died of cancer – decided to be a doctor instead
• Lost job in WWII Italy because she was Jewish
• Started working in her bedroom, then as a refugee
• Discovered how nerves grow
• Won 1986 Nobel Prize in medicine

• Lord Byron’s daughter
• Mother didn’t want her to be a poet, so she only learned math & logic
• Socialite
• Met Charles Babbage
(inventor of computer) at a party
• Wrote the first computer program/algorithm
• Famous science writer too

• Worked on Manhattan
Project
• New techniques for figuring out the age of artifacts, meteorites, the earth, etc
(kind of like carbon dating)
• Age of the earth = 4.5 billion years
• Kept finding lead in everything
• Traced it back to leaded gasoline – it was poisoning people!

November 9, 2015
7 th grade Chapter 9.1

• Atom: Smallest unit of matter. o Except not really, because atoms are made up of
‘subatomic particles’
• Substances made of one type of atom are called
elements.
• There are only 118 known elements in the universe o You can see them all on the periodic table (which is a little out of date) o Each atom has a symbol. E.g. Oxygen is O.
• All of them (except hydrogen and helium) were made in stars

• Molecule: 2 or more atoms stuck together to make a substance (chemical). The atoms are joined with chemical bonds
• Chemical bond: force of attraction between 2 atoms

H Br O
4
Numbers say how many
No number = 1
Each atom has a symbol from the periodic table
Symbols can be 1 or 2 letters.
First = capital, second = lower case or none

• How many/what type of atoms do these molecules have?
• H
2
O
• CuBr
2
• HgCl
2
• NaCl
• KNO
3

• They are both types of matter, so they are made of atoms
• Minerals and molecules are both substances o This means they have specific properties that are always the same
• Can sometimes be grown in crystal shapes
• Both have chemical formulas (symbols for writing the name)
• Small changes in what they’re made of can be big changes in their chemical and physical properties

2
• SiO
2 is a very common substance – sand, glass, quartz, amethyst
• SiO
2 can be different minerals o Dope with small amounts of other elements o Change crystal shape when it’s forming

November 11, 2015
7 th grade Chapter 9.1

H Br O
4
Numbers say how many
No number = 1
Each atom has a symbol from the periodic table
Symbols can be 1 or 2 letters.
First = capital, second = lower case or none

Ca S O
4
· 2H
2
O
This dot shows up in a lot of minerals’ chemical formulas.
It means that for every CaSO
4 molecule, there are 2 H
2
O molecules in the same place. Together, they make gypsum

Mineral: naturally occurring solid that can be formed by inorganic processes, has a crystal structure, and a defined chemical composition
• Defined chemical composition means that it’s a single type of molecule, so you can also call a mineral a substance
• 5 traits to define a mineral
Dioptase (CuSiO
3
·H
2
O)

1. Naturally occurring o You can make things that look like minerals in a lab, but they’re not “official” minerals unless they’re also found in nature.
2. Solid
3. Crystal Structure o Flat sides, sharp edges (based around prism shapes from math class!)
4. Forms by inorganic processes o You can sometimes form minerals in the body (e.g. kidney stone), but it’s not an “official” mineral unless you can also make it with things that aren’t plants or animals
5. Definite chemical composition o You can write a chemical formula for them

Minerals are identified mainly by their physical properties
1. Color
2. Streak
3. Luster
4. Hardness
5. Density
6. Crystal structure
7. Cleavage
8. Fracture
Marcasite (FeS
2
)

Streak: color of a mineral’s powder.
• Sometimes different shapes of the same mineral look like different colors, but when you grind them up, it will be the same color
• This used to be very important for making paint!
Lazurite ((Na,Ca)
8
[(S,Cl,SO
4
,OH)
2
· (Al
6
Si
6
O
24
)])

Luster: how shiny a mineral is/how light is reflected from it
• Uses words like metallic, glassy, earthy, silky, waxy, greasy, pearly
Fluorite (CaF
2
)

Hardness: how easy it is to scratch a mineral or scratch something else with it
• Measured with Mohs hardness scale
• 1= soft, 10=hard
Azurite (Cu
3
(CO
3
)
2
(OH)
2
)

Cleavage: splits easily along flat surfaces
Fracture: what it looks like when it splits
Pyrope (Mg
3
Al
2
Si
3
O
12
)

December 1, 2015
7 th grade Chapter 9.1, part 2

Mineral: naturally occurring solid that can be formed by inorganic processes, has a crystal structure, and a defined chemical composition
• Defined chemical composition means that it’s a single type of molecule, so you can also call a mineral a substance
• 5 traits to define a mineral
Dioptase (CuSiO
3
·H
2
O)

1. Naturally occurring o You can make things that look like minerals in a lab, but they’re not “official” minerals unless they’re also found in nature.
2. Solid
3. Crystal Structure o Flat sides, sharp edges (based around prism shapes from math class!)
4. Forms by inorganic processes o You can sometimes form minerals in the body (e.g. kidney stone), but it’s not an “official” mineral unless you can also make it with things that aren’t plants or animals
5. Definite chemical composition o You can write a chemical formula for them

Crystallization: the process of arranging atoms/molecules so that the substance has a definite crystal structure
1. From solutions
2. From cooling lava
3. From organic processes o To be considered a mineral, the same thing has to also form at other times by inorganic processes o E.g. Calcite can be made by clams and coral for their exoskeleton or in caves as stalactites (and other ways)

• Not the same thing as fixing a problem!
Solution: similar to a homogeneous mixture, but one substance is dissolved in another substance
• We’re usually talking about things dissolved in water, but it can be anything – technically doesn’t have to even be a liquid
• When substances leave a solution, crystallization occurs

• Evaporation o If you slowly remove the water, it leaves behind the other substance. Bigger crystals instead of sandy particles if it’s slow and not shaken
• Cooling o Usually, hot water can dissolve more of a substance in the first place. If it gets cold, the substance no longer “fits”
• Chemical change o If you dissolve one substance and it slowly changes into something else, the new substance might not have the same solubility (a physical property)

• Magma is molten rock beneath the earth’s crust
• Lava is when it makes it to the surface
• Magma & lava contain a lot of oxygen (O) and silicon (Si), so they form a lot of silicates o Silicates make up most of the earth’s crust
• Type of mineral formed depends on speed, heat, pressure, elements present, etc
• Magma cools slowly
• Lava cools quickly, so it makes smaller crystals

• Depending on how it cools & what else is present, silicates can form a bunch of
different minerals because there are a bunch of different crystal structures possible

• Depending on how they’re made, some minerals are more common in certain areas
• If you are in an area with a lot of earthquakes, would you expect more or less minerals to be made from lava?
• If hot water with dissolved substances was pushed through a crack in a rock, what might form?

December 2, 2015
7 th grade Chapter 9.2

Crystallization: the process of arranging atoms/molecules so that the substance has a definite crystal structure
1. From solutions
2. From cooling lava
3. From organic processes o To be considered a mineral, the same thing has to also form at other times by inorganic processes o E.g. Calcite can be made by clams and coral for their exoskeleton or in caves as stalactites (and other ways)

• Rocks are usually mixtures of minerals and other components o Can be 1 mineral or several
• 4 main traits to classify rocks:
1. Mineral composition
2. Color
3. Texture
4. Origin

Texture: the look and feel of a rock’s surface.
• Texture comes from grains
• Described by size, shape, and pattern of grains
Grain: particle of mineral or other rock inside a rock.
• Size can be small (fine) or coarse (large)
• Shape can be rounded or jagged
• Pattern can be nonbanded or banded (flat lines, swirls, etc)

• 3 major groups for rocks
• Determine rock group based on other properties
Igneous rock: formed from cooling magma or lava
Sedimentary rock: forms when particles of other rocks, plants, or animal remains are pressed and cemented together
Metamorphic rock: when a rock is changed by heat, pressure, or chemical change, usually deep underground

• Depending on how it cools & what else is present, silicates can form a bunch of
different minerals because there are a bunch of different crystal structures possible

• Depending on how they’re made, some minerals are more common in certain areas
• If you are in an area with a lot of earthquakes, would you expect more or less minerals to be made from lava?
• If hot water with dissolved substances was pushed through a crack in a rock, what might form?

December 9, 2015
7 th grade Chapter 9.3-9.5

• Rocks are usually mixtures of minerals and other components o Can be 1 mineral or several
• 4 main traits to classify rocks:
1. Mineral composition
2. Color
3. Texture
4. Origin

• 3 major groups for rocks
• Determine rock group based on other properties
Igneous rock: formed from cooling magma or lava
Sedimentary rock: forms when particles of other rocks, plants, or animal remains are pressed and cemented together
Metamorphic rock: when a rock is changed by heat, pressure, or chemical change, usually deep underground

• Formed from magma or lava, which is high in silica
• When it forms below the crust, it’s called intrusive
• Above the crust, extrusive
Trends (Not Always True):
• High in silica = dark rocks
• Low in silica = lighter-colored rocks
• When it cools quickly, it’s hard to form big crystals, so very fine grains in the texture.
• Hard, dense, and durable = good for arrowheads, countertops, fortresses

Sediment: small, solid particles of rocks or living things
• Sedimentary rocks form when sediment is deposited by water or wind and eventually stuck together
• Usually soft
• Sandstone and limestone are important building materials – sometimes used to make concrete too

Weathering
& Erosion
Deposition Compaction Cementation

Clastic rock: rock fragments are squeezed together.
Classified according to how big the particles are. E.g. conglomerate, shale, sandstone
Organic rock: formed when remains of plants or animals are pressed together. E.g. coal from swamp plants, limestone from shells & skeletons that are high in calcium
Chemical rock: usually formed from solutions. E.g.
Rock salt, limestone when it’s from evaporation

• Start off as sedimentary or igneous rocks, then are changed by heat, pressure, chemical changes, or a combo of these processes. E.g. marble, slate
• Appearance, texture, and crystal structure of the minerals changes
• Classified by pattern of the grains
• Used as building materials, old blackboard, etc.
• Most metamorphic rocks are foliated
Foliated: thin, flat layers in a rock

Study chemical vs physical changes, rock cycle, and chapter 1-2 also!

October 28, 2015

• Ada Lovelace
• Chemistry
• Pee
• Frankenstein
• Frog legs
• Ozymandias
• Lord Byron
• Batteries
• Mary Shelley

• Dr. Frankenstein uses modern
(for the time) science to turn dead parts into a living body o Electricity as the élan vital
• His monster is scary
• It ends badly
• Extra scary at the time because this might be real science o 30 years before, Luigi Galvani made dead frogs move with electricity

• The spark of life! (Vital force)
At the time (not now):
• People thought organic chemistry was totally different from inorganic chemistry
• Organic things like animals, fur, pee, dirt were different from rocks, metals, etc
• Organic things had (or had touched) the spark of life – the élan vital!
• Inorganic could never become organic
• Galvani and Volta’s new batteries seemed to change that o Frankenstein seems like logical progression

• His experiments failed, but he found something better
• Was trying to help
support Berzelius’ theory, ended up refuting it
• Made urea (pee), which was impossible
• Organic compounds from inorganic stuff
• Changed science!

December 7, 2015
Mandatory for 7 th grade

7 th grade HAS to do this. 6 th & 8 th optional.
• Testing an idea by experiment!
• You do it yourself (don’t just do what your parents tell you or let them take over)
• It doesn’t cost too much money – aim for $20 or less
• If you have a really good idea and plans about how to make it work, Ms. B can help you get lab access at Notre Dame – no guarantees

• Is it your idea or theirs?
• Do you need to use power tools? You should be the one operating the tools or giving instructions to the
Home Depot employee.
• Do you need a lab to complete the project? You should learn how to use/interpret the equipment
(supervision expected).

• Probably not allowed to use a $500,000 machine, but a grad student could run your sample and you could figure out how to read it:

• Make sure it’s an experiment (that answers a question), not just a demo (that only shows something cool)
Examples of Demos:
• Baking soda & vinegar volcano
• Marshmallow catapult
• Building something from a kit
• Rube Goldberg machine
Examples of Experiments:
• What is the best ratio of baking soda & vinegar to produce CO
2 quickly? What other variables will change the results?
• Does the catapult appear to obey the law of gravity exactly? What other factors are affecting the flight path?

• The difference between science and randomness is writing it down.
• Write or type neatly!
• All numbers should be written in metric/SI units.
• Get a separate notebook or folder for science fair.
• Be as objective as possible. (8 th grade: use
empirical evidence)
• Pictures are good!
• When in doubt, write it down!

1. Descriptive title – if someone only read this, would they know what you’re doing?
2. Question
3. Hypothesis
4. Materials list in metric units
5. Procedure – how to do your experiment
6. Results (Observations)
7. Conclusions – what your results mean
8. Reflection – sources of error, what to do next, etc

Additional information about regionals:
• http://sciencefair.nd.edu/
Project ideas:
• http://www.education.com/science-fair/middleschool/
• http://www.sciencebuddies.org/science-fairprojects/science_project_ideas.php
• (Note that some of these ideas are better classified as demonstrations – feel free to modify them!)

Due Wednesday, even if you aren’t doing science fair:
• Write down your question, hypothesis, and a rough idea of how you’ll test it
• Ms. B will approve your idea, help you modify it, or ask for another idea
• Backup idea recommended!