AP Chemistry
th
Zumdahl Notes, 9 ed.
A Brief Collection of notes, Chapter 2
Feel free to open these files and annotate as you feel the need…this is
for your success.
Atoms, Molecules, Ions
• Early History of Chemistry (read 43-44);
• Fundamental Chemical Laws
• Antoine Lavoisier: considered the father of modern chemistry, wrote the first
“modern” chemistry textbook; regarded measurement as the essential part of
chemistry, arrived at law of conservation of mass…yeah!
• Proust: law of definite proportion: a given cpd always has the same
proportion of elements by mass; led way for Dalton to come back with the
concept of atoms/tiny individual particles as well as law of multiple
proportions (simple whole number ratios in cpds)
Atoms, Molecules Ions
• Dalton’s atomic theory
• Elements made of atoms
• Atoms of a given element are identical; atoms of different elements are
different in some fundamental way
• When atoms of different elements combine, a new cpd is formed, with the
same makeup of atoms/elements
• Chemical reactions reorganize the atoms of the elements present, they do not
create new elements/atoms
• Dalton tried making table of atomic masses; had some errors but was
first idea of using table for this information
• Avogadro’s hypothesis: equal volumes of gases, at constant T & P,
have the same # particles (1811)…resisted for half century, eventually
confirmed
Atoms, Molecules, Ions
• Early experiments/progress
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JJ Thomson: cathode ray tubes, electrons!
Millikan: mass of electron, via oil drop experiment
Becquerel: radioactivity
Ernest Rutherford: gold foil expt: nucleus (+), mostly empty space
• Think pea in football field…yeah, mostly empty space allright!
• Modern view of atomic structure
• Extremely small size, knowledge of isotopes
• Molecules and Ions
• Molecules: from covalent cpds
• Formula units: from ionic cpds
• Cations and anions
Atoms, Molecules, Ions
• Periodic Table
• Metals, nonmetals, metalloids
• Periods/rows and groups/columns/families
• Naming simple compounds
• Binary ionic cpds: name cation first, anion second (likely –ide)
• Type 1: ions with a single oxidation state
• Type 2: ions with multiple possible oxidation states
• Need to use –ic or –ous to distinguish (ic is higher # of two choices)
• Need to use Roman Numeral to indicate appropriate oxidation state
• Ionic cpds with polyatomic ions
• Essentially, same deal with larger anions (mostly; only ammonium is common cation)
• Binary covalent cpds: two nonmetals; think nitrogen/oxygen cpds
• Don’t use mono for first element
Atoms, Molecules, Ions
• Acids
• If salt is –ate, becomes –ic
• If salt is –ite, becomes –ous
• If per- or hypo-, these travel as well