Agenda/Update
• Announcements
– Ecological Inventory & Article Review #1 Due April
18th.
• Updates to Wiki
– Please check to see if all links work.
– Still working on linking the articles for the article
review.
Article Review #1: Due April 18th,
(April 13th for Wednesday Class)
• Article Review Template
• Rubric is Posted
• Short presentation on Single-Subject Research
Designs
• Review article in your group…
– This will be your entry activity
– Everyone will complete a sheet
Single Subject Research
 Systematic analysis using individual subjects as
their own experimental control.
 Main message:
– Single subject research is an approach to rigorous
experimentation that involves small numbers of
subjects, repeated observations of subjects over time,
and employs research designs that allow each subject to
provide his/her own experimental control.
• Within-subject analysis
• Fine-grained analysis across time and conditions
Types of research
 Basic – gain knowledge for knowledge’s sake
– May be no immediate or foreseeable application or
implications for “real world” life
 Applied – research to gain knowledge or address
issues/problems that have immediate application
to “real world” life
– Educational research is applied research
 Single subject research methods are used in basic
and applied research – we’ll focus on applied
research in the course
Reasons for using single subject
methodology
 Focus on an individual rather than group means
– Interest is in the behavior of a single individual or on
within-subject variability
• A “group” may be treated as an “individual”
– Group descriptive statistics may not "describe" any
actual individual
– Generalizations from a group to an individual are
problematic in many instances
• Predicting the behavior of a specific individual is different
from predicting that of a “typical” individual
Reasons for Using Single Subject
Methodology (continued)
 Many populations of interest are low incidence
populations
– Practically, large numbers of subjects may not be
available
– Assumptions of normal distribution and homogeneity
of variance may not be valid
 Can be used in clinical practice contexts
– Single subject research studies may develop out of and
be conducted on a specific problem or need of an
individual(s) in a practical context
• Scientist-practitioner model
Dependent and independent
variables
 Dependent variable (DV) – the behavior (measure)
that you are analyzing
– You want to produce change (variability) in the
dependent variable
– Studies may have multiple DVs
 Independent variable (IV) – the variable (event,
intervention, condition) that is of experimental
interest and that the researcher manipulates in an
experimental research design
– May be discrete or continuous
– May be a single element or multi-component compound
– Studies may have multiple IVs
Internal Validity
 The degree to which observed differences/changes
in the dependent variable are a direct result of
manipulation of the independent variable, and not
some other extraneous variable
 Extent to which a functional relation can be
documented. Control of extraneous variables that
provide alternative explanations for results.
– It is okay to try to maximize internal validity, especially
in initial documentation of a functional relationship
• Doing this may come with a cost, however
Threats to Internal Validity
 History – everything happening outside of the
research study
 Maturation
 Testing - repeated measurement
 Instrumentation
– with human observers, observer bias and drift
 Attrition - loss of participants
 Multiple treatment interference
 Diffusion of treatment - intervention is
inadvertently provided when not intended
Threats to Internal Validity
(continued)
 Loss of baseline through generalization or spread
of effects (across settings, behaviors, or
participants)
 Instability and/or high variability of behavior
– cyclical variability
 Statistical regression toward mean
 Selection biases with participants
 Inconsistent or inaccurate implementation of the
IV (Treatment Drift/Treatment Integrity)
External Validity
 Defined: The extent to which results can be
applied to settings, activities, people, etc. other
than those involved in the study.
– Given that you have found an effect for this
intervention with this participant under one set of
conditions, will it work with other participants, in other
settings, when implemented by other interventionists,
and when implemented with minor variations in the
basic procedures?
– What can we generalize from this single study?
– Importance of systematic and direct replication.
Threats to External Validity
 Reactive experimental arrangements - Hawthorne
effect
 Reactive assessment - reactivity to observers
 Pretest sensitization
 Experimenter bias
 Interaction between selection bias and treatment
effects - i.e., intervention only works if the "right"
participants are selected
– Specificity of effects
The Research Question
 In single subject designs the research
question typically examines a causal, or
“functional” relation, between the
independent and dependent variable. As
such the research question should have three
features
• Identify the dependent variable(s)
• Identify the independent variable(s)
• Proclaim intention to determine if change in the IV is
functionally related to change in the DV.
Research Question Features
 Dependent variable is socially important
 Independent variable(s) can be controlled
(e.g. manipulated) across time.
 Both the dependent and independent
variable(s) can be operationally described
and measured.
 For “experimental” research, the question
must ask if change in the DV is caused by
(or functionally related to) change in the IV.
Research Question Examples
 Is there a functional relation between development of
reading fluency and scores on comprehensive reading
assessments?
 Will walking in water facilitate development of appropriate
gait by individuals with “gait imbalance hypertension.”
 Is there a functional relation between use of escape-
extinction and reduction of escape-motivated food refusal?
 Does Jason act out because he has ADHD?
Visual Analysis:
Interaction of multiple features
– Level = mean of data points within a phase
– Trend = slope of best fit straight line for data within a
phase
– Variability = range and sd of data about the best fit
straight line within a phase
– Overlap = Percent of data points in intervention phase
that are within the range of data in the BL.
– Immediacy of effect = change in level from last 3-5 data
points in BL to first 3-5 data points in intervention
– Similarity of Effect = Similar effects at point of
intervention (introduction or withdrawal)
– Outliers = atypical data points
Phase A
Phase B
Phase A
Immediacy of
Effect
Level
Phase B
Variability
Trend
Overlap
Research Question???
Defining Features of
Multiple Baseline Designs
 A multiple baseline design involves three or
more AB interventions (series) with phase
changes staggered across at least three points
in time.
 Key Features
– Series are independent of each other
• People, places, materials, behaviors/skills
– The same IV is applied in each series
– Staggered implementation of IV
Interpreting MBL Designs
– Identify Research Question(s)
– Assess Baselines for each series
• Do the Baselines document a predictable pattern?
• Do Baselines allow opportunity to document IV effect?
• Are Baselines similar?
– Horizontal Analysis of Effect (per series)
• Level, trend, variability, overlap, immediacy of effect
– Vertical Analysis
• DV change in one series is associated with NO change in other
series?
• Similar effect (consistent effect) across series?
– Functional Relationship?
• At least three demonstrations of effect at three points in time
BL
Lollipop for R+
Treatment
6
100
80
60
Percentage of Correct Responding
40
20
Vivian
0
Lollipop for R+
100
80
60
40
20
Tammy
0
Lollipop for R+
100
80
60
40
20
Dr. Cathy
0
10
20
30
40
Sessions
50
60
70
Defining features of withdrawal and
reversal designs
 Sequential phases of data collection involving the
implementation and withdrawal of an independent
variable(s)
– within each phase, multiple data points are collected to establish a
representative pattern of behavior
– phase change should occur only after stability of behavior within
the phase is established
– traditionally, the first phase is Baseline, followed by
implementation of the IV (Intervention)
• this is not required, however, as you may begin a study with an
intervention phase
When are reversal and withdrawal
designs appropriate?
 Behavior measured as DV is “reversible”
– Learning will not occur
 Limited carryover effects between phases
 Ethical concerns
– Can do a reversal
• DV is not a dangerous behavior, or you can protect participant
• Staff cooperation
 Can compare multiple conditions
– Comparison of too many conditions makes design cumbersome
4B
Baseline
FCT
Baseline
FCT
6
Total SIB per minute
5
4
3
2
1
0
1
5
10
15
Sessions
20
25
30
35
Defining Features of Changing
Criterion Designs
 Within subject analysis
 Independent variable needs to have at least four levels (e.g.
criteria)
 Document baseline performance with one level of the IV
 Change the level of the IV and monitor change in DV
– Immediacy of change important
– Absence of trend and variability important
 Repeat level (criterion) change in IV two more times.
Example
 Examine the graphs below
– 1. What is the research question?
– 2. Is there a functional relationship?
– 3. Does the design document three
demonstrations of an “effect” at three different
points in time? Where?
Changing Criterion Design
Occurrences of Problem Behavior
25
BL: No Reinf Reinf < 17
Reinf < 12
Reinf < 5
20
15
10
5
0
1
3
5
7
9
11
13
15
Days
17
19
21
23
25
27
29
Changing Criterion Design
Occurrences of Problem Behavior
25
BL: No Reinf Reinf < 17
Reinf < 12
Reinf < 5
20
15
10
5
0
1
3
5
7
9
11
13
15
Days
17
19
21
23
25
27
29
ATD/ MED Defined
 Alternating Treatment (Multi-Element)
Designs employ rapid phase reversals
across 2 or more conditions to assess
sensitivity of change in the dependent
variable to change in condition.
Student 1
Hypothesis: Escape Math Work
Percent Intervals with Occurrence of Problem Behavior
100%
90%
80%
70%
2. Is Esc
different
than Attn?
Control Condition
Escape Condition
60%
Attention Condition
50%
IOA
1. Is Esc
different than
Control?
40%
30%
20%
10%
0%
1
2
3
Sessions
4
5
Complete the Article Review for
the Article in Your Group
• Take 30 minutes to complete the Article
Review with your group.
• You only have 30 minutes, so my suggestion is
to quickly read the main points of the article
to answer the questions on the worksheet OR
• Assign sections for members to read…but this
might cause more complication….
30
Schoolwide Applications Model
• Guiding Principles
• Critical Features
• School-Centered: Reallocation of
Resources/Responsibilities
• RTI approach/ Emphasis on SWPBS
• Data-based decision-making
• Not ending IEP process, but actually
expanding this logic to ALL students (UDL)
– Culturally relevant assessment
– Services available to all students based on need
– Systematic, evidence-based instruction
31
Assessing Students with
Significant Disabilities
Guiding Principles for Designing
Instruction
• Self-determination: honor students’ preferences
• Family- & culture-centered planning
• Educational accountability: all students can learn & deserve
high quality instruction
• Personalized curriculum: draw from both adaptations of
academic curriculum & life skills the students need for current
& future environments
• Inclusion: enhance participation in inclusive settings
• Functional & age-appropriate skills: daily living and
appropriate to students chronological age
• Choice: encourage choice-making
• Research as a resource for practice: data-based intervention
research provides resource for what & how to teach
Team Process
• Collaboration by a team of professionals is
essential
• Must take into consideration the
characteristics of the individual:
– strengths & needs
• Consider the environment in which student
functions and will function in the near future
• Include objectives for the student that are tied
to the general curriculum
Yearly
Individual
Student
Planning
Meeting
(MDT)
Functional
Assessment/
Ecological
Inventory
Instruction/
Collect Data
Co-Plan/
Design
Instructional
Plan
Monthly/
Quarterly
Daily/
Weekly
Individual Student Planning

Multi-disciplinary Team approach




“One Voice”
Involving GE, SPED, other services
Review data, schedule and outline actions to
better support student
1 time per/ mon. until establish success


No longer than 45 minutes
Agenda with action plan
Purpose of Assessment


Capacity Building vs Deficit Finding
Capacity Building (O’Brien & Mount, 1991)



Focus on strengths and preferences
Avoid use of standardized assessments that
are not appropriate to a student because of
physical or sensory impairments or cultural
differences
Use of observations & interviews
Deficit-finding Perspective

“Rebecca Ferguson has an IQ of 21 and a
mental age of 1 year, 18 mos. Her scores on the
Vineland Adaptive Behavior Scales were below
basal levels. She has Down’s syndrome and
severe mental retardation. R cannot use the
toilet or eat independently and will require
lifelong assistance for personal care. She is
nonverbal except for some random
vocalizations. R sometimes engages in
aggressive behavior including spitting, and
slapping
Capacity-building perspective

“Rebecca is a 16-year old girl with brown eyes
and black hair who has been medically
classified with Down’s syndrome. Her scores
below basal levels on the Vineland and the
Weschler Intelligence Scale support her ongoing
eligibility for special education services. R is
highly social and greets others using eye
contact, smiles, a wave, and an occasional hug.
She makes her needs known by moving to an
area or obtaining materials (e.g, her bathing suit
to go swimming). She can sign “eat” to request
food. She has strong preferences is assertive….
Ecological Assessment:
A process


Method to identify instructional priorities
based on a student’s current and future
environments and the student’s and
family’s preferences (Browder, 2001)
AKA:


“Functional assessment (Linehan & Brady,
1985)”
“Life skills assessment (Browder, 1991)”
Research on Ecological
Assessment


Arose out of dissatisfaction with failures in adapting
standardized assessments for students with significant
disabilities
 Information obtained had minimal impact on
educational planning
 (Sigafoos et al., 1987; Blankenship, 1985; Cole et al.,
1985)
Ecological reports result in:
 Higher ratings of expected educational outcomes
(Linehan & Brady, 1985)
 Educators more likely to recommend related services
and less restrictive placements
Steps in Ecological Assessment
Process





Step 1: Plan with Student & Family
Step 2: Summarize what is known about
the student
Step 3: Encourage Self-Determination/
Assess Student Preferences
Step 4: Assess student’s instructional
program
Step 5: Develop ecological assessment
report
Step 1: Plan with Student &
Family


Use a person-centered process
Encourage student & family involvement in
planning assessment & instructional goals
Step 2: Summarize What is
Known About the Student





Summarize student’s strengths & positive
attributes
Use Capacity building statements (vs
deficit building statements)
Notes from educational records
Summary of progress on IEP
Goal: Describe the purpose of
assessment
Step 3: Encourage Student SelfDetermination/ Assess Preference


Strengthen the student’s influence on their
education
Student may need to try new options
through systematic preference
assessment (Lohrmann-O’Rourke &
Browder, 1998)


Note student’s typical choices, talking with
others who know the student, & new options
Student preference enhanced by offering &
honoring choices (Kern et al., 1998)
Planning for Self-Determination &
Quality of Life Outcomes

Self-determination and Quality of Life are
critical learning outcomes (Schalock, 1994;
Wehmeyer, 1996).

Take a look at the Arc’s Self-Determination
Scale (1995).

Quality of Life Planning: Home and
community functioning, employment, & health
and safety
Step 4: Assess Student’s
Instructional Program


Student’s instructional program should be
individualized, but should not prevent a
student from participating in general
education.
Rather it should define how to make this
participation meaningful for a student
whose reading & math skills are far below
grade level
Developing an instructional
program


Begin with broad assessments, then move
to specific assessments
Conduct:




1. Ecological Inventory of different domains
that a student experiences OR will experience
2. Conduct an activity analysis (discrepancy
analysis)
3. Conduct a situational analysis/task analysis
4.Functional behavioral assessment (FBA; if
needed)
Start with looking at the student’s
school environment



In defining the LRE, start with general
education….
Look at a student’s goals/objectives
defined by the team and take an inventory
of where in the student’s schedule those
skills can be taught.
Infused Skills Grid
Infused Skills Grid
School Name
Infused Skills Grid
Student Name:
Age:
Grade:
Parent/Guardian:
Advocate Teacher:
Class Schedule:
Room:
Phone:
Phone:
Infused Skills

Focus on Goals.

Increase Participation
Activities/Subjects/Environments
Check here if the
infused skill has
been identified by:
Family
Student
Peers
School
Case Study :

Objectives for Isaac:
1.
Use picture schedule to
follow class routine.
Use sign language, PECS to
communicate (make
requests, label objects)
Write words from left to
right
Correctly identify
letters/sounds/words by
pointing
Engage in reciprocal play
(taking turns, sharing
objects with others)
Count & add numbers up to
30
Use a calculator to perform
multiplication, division

Isaac is one of your students
in your 4th grade class.

He loves music- especially
reggae
2.

He is a visual learner, likes
puzzles, blocks, and riding
bike
3.

Isaac has very limited verbal
language and is learning to
use picture exchange
communication (PECS) and
sign language to
communicate with others as
well as picture schedules to
participate in his general
education classes/ activities.
Isaac
4.
5.
6.
7.
After you have determined where those skills
can be met, conduct an ecological inventory
of:





Environments: (e.g., High school classes)
Sub-environment: (e.g., Consumer math)
Activities: (e.g., work problems in text, lecture,
computer simulations, group projects, etc.)
Natural supports available: (e.g., computer for
each student, teacher gives 1:1 feedback
Target Skills: (e.g., number recognition, use of
calculator)
Group Activity: Think about your current
placement and outline the:

Environments: (e.g., High School, Job)

Sub-environments: (Classes, Locations)
Activities within sub-environments:
 Natural supports within sub-environments:


Do this for all of the sub-environments
(e.g., classes, locations) a student may
access in a day within your school
Next, Conduct an Activity
Analysis
Activity Analysis
Name: _______________________________
Date: _______________________________
Sub-environment/Class: _________________________
Time
Classroom Activity
Steps/ Natural Cues
What Other Students Are Doing
Target Student
Performance
(+/-)
Comments
Skills in Need
of Instruction
Bryant, D.P., Smith, D. D., & Bryant, B. R. (2008). Teaching students with special needs in inclusive classrooms. Boston: Allyn & Bacon.
A
ASK:
What am I
requiring
students to
do?
D
DETERMINE
the prerequisite
skills of the
task.
A
ANALYZE
the student’s
strengths
and needs.
P
PROPOSE
and
implement
adaptations
T
TEST to
determine if
adaptations
helped the
student
Standards/
Lesson
Plan
Observe steps
ALL students
are doing to
achieve the
standard
Observe
what
TARGET
student is
doing—
what steps
can do.
Identify
TARGET
STUDENT
outcomes
and
adaptations
needed
based on
observation
Create a
DATA
collection
plan.
Bryant, D.P., Smith, D. D., & Bryant, B. R. (2008). Teaching students with special needs in inclusive classrooms. Boston: Allyn & Bacon.
ADAPT Framework/ An Instructional Planning
Framework





Ask: What am I requiring the student to do? (Lesson
Plans, Co-Planning)
Determine the prerequisite skills (Task analyze-What all
students are doing)
Analyze the student’s strengths and needs (Task
analyze-What is the target student doing)
Propose and implement adaptations (Identify objectives
and adaptations)
Test to determine if the adaptation helped the student
accomplish the task (Data collection plan)
A- Ask what am I requiring?




In general education settings, “What are
the standards for all students?”
Collaborate with GE teacher to obtain
schedule, activities, homework, etc.
Lesson Plan to ensure participation and
success towards objectives
Multi-Disciplinary Team- Individual student
planning
Curriculum Co-Planning
Curriculum Co-Planning
Teacher(s): _______________________
Time and Dates:
The class/unit/project/activity……
At the end of this class/unit/ project/activity the learner should be
able to…..
Planning Materials:
What major instructional strategies will be used to engage the learners?
Projects
Hands-on Activities/ Activity-based Instruction
Writing/Illustrating
Computers
Games
Demonstrations/Simulations/Role-playing
Partners/Cooperative Groups
Presentations/Lectures
Reading/ Partner Reading
Large/Small group Discussions
Guest Lecturers/Instructors
Independent Practice/Exercises/ “Seat Work”
Community Instruction
Students Presentations
Homework
Other____________________________________________________________________________________
______

What a FEW of my
students will know.

What MOST of students
will know.

What ALL my students
will know.

Further modifications
Determine the prerequisite skills



Directly observe what ALL students are
doing.
Activity Analysis- steps they take to
achieve the standard
During observation:



Are students successful
Are they good models
Can the provide support to others
Analyze target students strengths
and needs


Directly observe the target student’s
performance (compared to the task
analysis of what typical students are
doing)
Look for natural supports

Ask: are there things within the room that
would provide natural adaptations for the
student (i.e. class schedule, organizers,
peers)
Next, conduct Situational/Task Analysis
for Skills in Need of Instruction
Activity Analysis
Name: _______________________________
Date: _______________________________
Sub-environment/Class: _________________________
Time
Classroom Activity
Steps/ Natural Cues
What Other Students Are Doing
Target Student
Performance
(+/-)
Comments
Skills in Need
of Instruction
Task Analysis/ Routines
Monitoring
 Guides the sequence of steps for completing
a specific routine/task
 Guides student progress on specific
routines/tasks
 Guides instruction to include generalization
& maintenance of all skills used within the
routine
 Review of student progress at-a-glance for
instructional decisions
Step 5- Develop an ecological
assessment report




Recommendations can be developed for
the student’s instructional plan
Outline goals/objectives
Proposed Adaptations
Instructional Plan


Includes Participation Plan for School Day
Data-Plan: how you will assess student
progress
Participation Plan
Name:
Grade:
Participation Plan
What the class does:
Listening to lecture
(taking notes)
Class is reading out loud
Writing (in journal or on their laptops):
Responding to reading or class topic:
Math assignments
Answering questions related to passage
Receiving instruction on laptops
How to provide support:
How student participates:
Participation Plan
Name: Justin
Participation Plan
What the class does:
Listening to lecture
(taking notes)
Class is reading out loud
Writing (in journal or on their laptops):
Responding to reading or class topic:
Math assignments
Answering questions related to passage
Receiving instruction on laptops
How to provide support:
Peer/ Adult makes simplified notes related to
lecture.
1) Peer/ adult takes notes on who, what,
where, and other important key words
or concepts from the passage.
2) Student practices ahead of time a
particular sentence to read in class or
3) Adult identifies 1-2 key words and
creates 1-2 questions with pictures.
Provide sentence shell. Example: The story
takes place in _________ (Chicago, Africa),
have him choose the correct response to write in
the blank.
Collaborate with teacher to prepare a statement
or response ahead of time related to reading.
Provide math and word problems that are
simplified, but still related to curriculum. Use
coins, cubes, or other manipulatives to
demonstrate concepts. Have him match
numbers with actual number of objects
Shorten and provide 2-choice questions to
student. Use sentence shell and have student fill
answers. Provide written or verbal choices to
fill in blanks
Have peer help him follow along with lecture.
Ask him for topics to look up. If no answer,
then give him a choice (age-appropriate)
How student participates:
Student listens and takes notes from peer/ adult.
Student works on related work while teacher is lecturing
Student will follow along in book.
Student will find 3-4 key words.
Student reviews key words and concepts after reading is
completed.
Identify 1-2 pictures in the classroom text and answer
questions created by staff.
Write correct response in blank and then recpy the sentence
when complete.
Uses pictures to add to his writing.
Student will raise his hand and respond to a question when
asked by the teacher.
Have him calculate problems using calculator and/ or
manipulatives, then turn in adapted assignment to teacher
when complete.
Have him answer simplified and/or multiple choice
questions orally and then recopy or rewrite the answer.
Have student use pictures to demonstrate knowledge of
subject matter.
He will listen to lecture and press buttons that peer directs
him to.
He will look up on the internet by copying address from
paper on his laptop.
Propose Adaptations

Based on observations:




Define the outcomes for the student during
each activity.
Are there natural supports available?
Are there adaptations/modifications to the
curriculum that can be made in order for the
student to achieve the outcomes?
Is explicit instruction on specific skills or
supports needed?
Plan how you will test to
determine if plan is working

Data collection plan



What will you collect?
How are you going to use the data?
When do you make decisions using the data?
Steps in Ecological Assessment
Process





Step 1: Plan with Student & Family
Step 2: Summarize what is known about
the student
Step 3: Encourage Self-Determination/
Assess Student Preferences
Step 4: Assess student’s instructional
program
Step 5: Develop ecological assessment
report
Alternative & Complementary
Techniques
Family’s want to do what is best for their child.
 May want to explore alternative therapies &
techniques
– Examples: medical procedures, surgeries,
diets, devices, therapies

Your Role

Remember person-centered/familycentered planning

Responsibility to educational progress

Remind team of Data-based
decisions/assessments

Encourage use of Evidence-based
practices