Self & Identity
Modules 10-1 & 10-2
What is the self?
• Self: All the Characteristics of a Person
• Self-concept: Everything the person believes
to be true about him/herself
• Includes traits, preferences, social roles,
values, beliefs, interests, self-categorization
• Self-understanding develops throughout the
lifespan
Development of self-Awareness
• Dot-of-rouge experiment
– 15-24 months of age
– Infant looking in mirror wipes dot of rouge
from his/her own nose
– Evidence of self-awareness
Self in Early Childhood
•
•
•
•
•
Confusion of self, mind, and body
Concrete descriptions
Physical descriptions
Activities – what they do
Overestimation of abilities
Self – Middle & Late Childhood
•
•
•
•
Shift to internal traits and abilities
Social role descriptions
Real and ideal selves
More realistic about abilities
Perspective Taking
• Opposite of egocentrism – the ability to
assume another’s perspective
• Children who are good at this are
popular
• Development progresses through stages
(Selman)
Self in Adolescence
•
•
•
•
•
•
Abstract-idealistic
Self-conscious/ preoccupied
Contradictions within self
Fluctuating picture across time/situations
Possible selves
Self-integrations as they get older
Self in Adulthood
• Self-awareness (emotional intelligence)
– Accept own good and bad qualities
• Possible selves become more realistic
• Life review – evaluation of successes &
failures; more likely as you get older
What Is Self-Worth?
– Meaning
– Purpose
– Living up to your identity & your destiny
• Self-respect
Self-Esteem: What is it?
• Evaluative part of the self-concept
– emotional
• Difference between the real and ideal self
– Have you realized your potential?
– Do you value the trait, but have little potential?
– Ideal self includes the “ought” and the “wish”
selves
• Measure of our sense of meaning in life
– This includes purpose
– Self-respect (Have you lived up to who you are?)
Self-Esteem: What is it?
• Influenced by the reactions of others
– Generalized other, great ubiquitous “they”
• People are susceptible to flattery
• It is tougher to accept criticism
• Basis for conformity
Self-Esteem: What is it?
• Self-serving bias
– Overrate ourselves
– Blame our failures
– Claim our victories
– As a rule, only depressed people truly have low
self-esteem
Self-esteem: What’s the problem?
“Why is being wrong so socially traumatic to
students?”
The Self-Esteem Movement
Thank you to Dr. Tracey Zinn, on whose
conference presentation this section is based.
The Self-Esteem Movement
Propagated primarily in the educational system
Curricula aimed at increasing students’ self-esteem
Everyone born after 1970…
Focus has been on increasing self-esteem that is not rooted in reality
Researchers now suggesting that students need to be able to identify their
talents
The Psychology of Self-Esteem Branden (1969)
What Was Taught?
“Keep your head up, feel good about yourself” vs. “take
responsibility for your work”.
Forsyth et al (2007)
“You can do anything!”
No use of the word “failure”
& What Happened
Everyone got all As in HS, doing little work
Unrealistic expectations of success
Students report being bored in class
What Resulted
What Resulted: Attitudes
• “Being happy is the most important thing”
• We should always feel good about ourselves
• Increase in narcissism (debated)
• Don’t say “I’m a good soccer player” (Just say “I’m
good.”)
Result – Confused Parents
• Encouraged delicate handling of children
• Shielded them from negative emotions, criticism
• Praised kids regardless of what they did
Carol Dweck’s research
Parents often think that helping their kids build selfesteem is done by shielding them from criticism and
praising their talents
Protecting kids from hurt, failure, criticism, &
disappointment has made them more vulnerable
What Failed to Result
[High self-esteem] Isn’t associated with
improved grades, career achievement, reduced
alcohol usage, lower violent behavior, etc.
Baumeister and colleagues (2003)
Educational Outcomes of the SelfEsteem Movement
Effort is considered a sign of stupidity.
When children are told that they did well
because they are smart and not because they
worked hard, they choose an easier task.
Panic when they are challenged or
think they are engaging in “a lot of effort”.
From Carol Dweck’s research
Poor Atmosphere for Learning:
Educational Outcomes of the SelfEsteem Movement
Susan Jacoby The Age of American Unreason
Are our students (people) hostile to knowledge?
Self-esteem movement = I’m the smartest kid!
“I’m supposed to be happy!”
What Resulted - Behaviors
• Students seem to be incapable of handling negative feedback.
• New hires are asking for raises and promotions almost
immediately after being hired.
• When students with high SE are criticized, unfriendly, rude,
and uncooperative.
• Entitlement regularly cited as an issue in college.
When instructors that provide too much guidance,
too much structure, too much availability . . . . .
Are we setting up our classes to suggest that:
 All
students should be successful at everything?
 Failure or struggle is not to be expected?
 Learning should be easy, comfortable, or fun at all
times?
 Students don’t need to solve their own problems?
Can Teachers Give Realistic
Feedback?
What happened to constructive criticism?
• Students say, “I don’t believe a lot of feedback
from my teachers.”
• Teachers say, “How can we give appropriate,
contingent feedback without punishing class
participation?”
Correlates of Self-Esteem
What did we report?
• More initiative
• Happier, less depressed
– As long as things are going well.
• Related to physical appearance
• Can become narcissistic
• Fluctuates across the lifespan
What Failed to Result
[High self-esteem] Isn’t associated with
improved grades, career achievement, reduced
alcohol usage, lower violent behavior, etc.
Baumeister and colleagues (2003)
What Self-esteem Cannot Do (and we
predicted it would)
•
•
•
•
•
Improve school performance
Improve social relationships
Guarantee good leadership
Prevent risky behavior such as drinking
Promote health
• It is defined in more than one way.
• It may simply be a marker or indicator
variable.
Backlash against Self-Esteem
John Hewitt’s
The Myth of Self-Esteem: Finding Happiness
and Solving Problems in America
“Why do you feel good about yourself?”
“Because of self-esteem”
Backlash against Self-Esteem
Generation Me
Risk of depression & anxiety higher for young people today
“Our growing tendency to put the self first leads to
unparalleled freedom, but it also creates an enormous
amount of pressure on us to stand alone.”
College
• Students experience more stress & are
more depressed than in the past
– Frequently feel overwhelmed
– Pervasive concerns are pressure to succeed in
college, get a great job, and make lots of
money
• In 1998, 24% of the population aged 25
and over had completed four or more years
of college.
Career Identity
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Intrinsic Motivation
Job Satisfaction
Role Conflict
Burnout
Unemployment
Underemployment
Age Discrimination
Are Negative Emotions Normal?
• Today, the lifetime rate of major depression is 10
times higher than for people born before 1915—
15-20% higher, some say
• Some argue that it’s not just an increase in
diagnosis or acceptability of depression/anxiety, but
a real increase in the disorder
• “Normal” schoolchildren in the 1980s reported
higher levels of anxiety than child psychiatric
patients in the 1950s (Twenge)
Are Negative Emotions Normal?
Focus on the self and independence: “Our
disappointments loom large because we have
nothing else to focus on.”
Generation me has been taught to expect more
out of life at the very time when good jobs and
nice houses are increasingly difficult to obtain.
– We are supposed to be able to do and be
anything; any disappointment suggests that we will
not.
Are Negative Emotions Normal?
Against happiness: In praise of melancholy
Eric Wilson
Loss of sadness: How Psychiatry Transformed Normal
Sorrow into Depressive Disorder
Alan Horwitz & James Wakefield
The Medicalization of Society: On the Transformation of
Human Conditions into Treatable Disorders
Peter Conrad
What is Identity?
Components of Identity
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Career
Political views
Religious beliefs
Relationships
Ethnic identity
Personality
Body image
Erikson: Identity Achievement
vs. Identity Confusion
• Identity crisis - exploration
• Identity commitment
• Problems:
– Weak sense of trust
– Little autonomy or initiative
– Lack of industry
Paths to Identity
Marcia’s Four Identity Statuses
• Identity diffusion
– No crisis/ commitment
• Identity foreclosure
– Commitment/ no crisis
• Identity moratorium
– Crisis/ no commitment
• Identity achievement (goal)
– Commitment following crisis
Are we having an identity crisis?
• Sources of identity –
– Parents
– Extended family
– Religious
– Political: national, regional (state), local
– Ethnic, racial
– Work, occupation, profession
– Group membership: gang, school, club
– Military
– Fan(atic): Trekkie, sports team, music, idol
Are we having an identity crisis?
• Example Identity Conflicts
• Parental vs. independent
• Ethnic vs. national
• Family vs. work
• Group vs. group
Changes at Midlife
Research Findings for Midlife
•
•
•
•
Overview
General increase in introspection.
Increased self-acceptance.
Greater autonomy, less concern with the
evaluations and expectations of others.
High environmental mastery.
Erikson –Generativity vs. Stagnation
• Generativity: reaching out to others in
ways that guide and give to the next
generation
– Mentoring
– Parenting
– Teaching
– Writing
– Building businesses
– Political Activity
– Leaving your legacy
Erikson –Generativity vs. Stagnation
• Self-absorption
• Self-indulgence
Levinson: Seasons of a Man’s Life
• Cycles of transition & stability in 20’s, 30’s,
and 40’s
• By 40’s mortality is realized
• Levinson: Some are disappointed in not
having realized their early adulthood dream;
some question the value of their
accomplishments to society
Is there a midlife crisis?
• No, not necessarily during the 40s.
• Most adults reach points of questioning
what they are doing and considering the
need for a change.
• This is usually brought on by life events.