Chapter 2
The Physical World
Objective: understanding the physical aspects of geography
Why to understand physical features?



A description of a physical place includes the
characteristics of the land formation, including types of
water in the area.
The terrain of the area (e.g. mountains, hills, valleys,
plateaus, etc.), the related vegetation, and the type of
surface water affect the potential activities (sports and
other outdoor activities – e.g. hiking, boating, fishing
etc.) that can be conducted by the travelers.
Land and water may attract the traveler who has varies
needs.
Major Land and Water Forms










Bay
Canyon
Cape
Coast
Delta
Fjord
Glacier
Gulf
Isthmus
Peninsula









Plain
Plateau
Strait
Archipelago
Cay
Dune
Foothills
Lagoon
Reef
Latitude and Longitude




Where are we?
The latitude and longitude system is used to locate
points on the earth’s surface.
The system is expressed in degrees ( ° ). For exact
positioning, degrees longitude and latitude are divided
into minutes ( ' ) and seconds ( " )
E.g. Washington D.C. 38° 53' 23" N, 77° 00' 27" W (38
degrees, 53 minutes, and 23 seconds north of the
equator and 77 degrees, no minutes and 27 seconds
west of the meridian passing through Greenwich,
England)
Latitude





Are also called parallels.
Lines of latitude express relative position north or
south of the equator (zero degrees latitude).
Zero degrees is the equator, the imaginary line which
divides the planet into northern and southern
hemispheres.
Latitude is measured from 0° to 90° north or south. 90°
north is the North Pole and 90° south is the South
Pole.
The climate is usually similar at latitudes that are an
equal distance north or south of the equator.

Each degree of latitude is approximately 111km apart.
Since the shape of the earth is not a perfect sphere but
an oblate ellipsoid, there is variation.
Longitude




Are also called meridians.
Lines of longitude run north and south between North
Pole and South Pole.
Zero degrees longitude is established at the Greenwich
Observatory, England and is called the “prime
meridian” or “Greenwich Meridian”.
Longitude is measured east and west from this prime
meridian. The degrees continue 180° east and 180° west
(half way around the world) where they meet and form
“The International Date Line” in the Pacific Ocean.




The world can be divided into hemispheres in two
primary ways – Eastern/Western and
Northern/Southern.
The Eastern Hemisphere includes all meridians of East
Longitude from 0° to 180°; while the Western
Hemisphere includes all meridians of West Longitude.
The Northern/Southern splits the world at the equator
with all parallels of North Latitude in the Northern
Hemisphere and all parallels of South Latitude in the
Southern Hemisphere.
World Latitude and Longitude Outline Map:
http://www.enchantedlearning.com/geography/world/
latlongoutlinemap/
To locate the coordinates of a point;






Peak a city as an example.
For Latitude: find the equator. Determine if the
city is north or south the equator. (N or S)
Always measures north and south.
Determine which two lines of latitude the city is
in between.
Determine if the city is closer to the midpoint
or one of the lines.
Estimate the degrees Latitude.





For Longitude: Find the prim meridian.
Determine if the city is East or West of the
Prime Meridian. (E or W)
Always measure east and west.
Determine which two lines of longitude the city
is in between.
Determine if the city is closer to the midpoint
or one of the lines.
Estimate the degrees Longitude.
Latitude/Longitude Chart
City Name
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
Latitude
N/S
Longitude
E/W
Time Zones



World time varies in a direct relationship to longitudinal
location of a point.
Earth rotates 15 degrees every hour. (There are 360
degrees of longitude - 180 East and 180 West – on the
earth and 24 hours in a day  360 / 24 = 15 degrees
per hour). Thus, there is a difference of one hour for
each 15 degrees difference in longitude.
In order to have the sun at its highest point in sky at
noon everywhere around the world, we need multiple
“time zones”.
Determining Time



A plane leaves Munich at 7:00 Sunday to go to
New York City. What time will it be in New
York City? (flight duration is 8 hours)
Multiple time zones divide the world into 24 15degree slices and set the clocks accordingly in
each zone.
Each zone is one hour different from the next.
Greenwich Mean Time (GMT)




When time is concerned, why is the Greenwich
Observatory such a big deal?
World time is measured in terms of relationship to the
time at the Greenwich Observatory, England known as
the “Prime Meridian”.
Time at the Greenwich Meridian is known as
“Greenwich Mean Time” (GMT) or Universal Time.
The Chart, on page 8 of your course book, shows
places (countries, cities etc.), number of hours later (+)
or earlier (-) than GMT.
What Time Zone Is It?


While traveling (for example, from Munich to New
York City), to calculate the time at the arrival point
(may be the time in air as well), the number of time
zones crossed need to be considered.
Since straight longitudes (time zones) can cut across
countries, time differences are usually established
along political boundaries. For example, China uses
a single time zone and sets its clock to the time in
its capital, Beijing. On the other hand, in the US,
there are four time zones – Eastern, Central,
Mountain and Pacific.
Example 1A

If it is 14:00 in New York City (GMT-5), what time is it
in Paris, France (GMT+1)?

time in New York (GMT-5)
GMT is
time in Paris (GMT+1)


14:00
19:00 (14:00 plus 5 hours)
20:00 (19:00 plus 1 hour)
PS: note that the time difference between New York and Paris is 6
hours.
Example 1B

If it is 14:00 on a Monday in New York City (GMT-5),
what time is it in Sydney, Australia (GMT+10)?

time in New York (GMT-5)
GMT is
time in Sydney (GMT+10)
10 hours)


14:00 on Monday
19:00 (14:00 plus 5 hours)
05:00 on Tuesday (19:00 plus
PS: note that the time difference between New York and Sydney is
15 hours.
Example 1C

If it is 07:00 in Moscow (GMT+3), what time is it in
Tokyo, Japan (GMT+9)?

time in Moscow (GMT+3)
GMT is
time in Tokyo (GMT+9)


07:00
04:00 (07:00 minus 3 hours)
13:00 (04:00 plus 9 hours)
PS: note that the time difference between Moscow and Tokyo is 6
hours.
Example 2

A plane leaves Munich at 7:00 Sunday to go to New
York City. What time will it be in New York City?
(flight duration is 8 hours)

plane departs at
GMT is
flight duration
flight landing at GMT is
time in New York (GMT-5)




07:00 in Munich (GMT+1)
06:00 (07:00 minus 1 hour)
8 hours
14:00 (06:00 plus 8 hours)
09:00 (14:00 minus 5 hours)
PS: note that although the flight duration is 8 hours, departure from
Munich was 07:00 and arrival to New York was 09:00.
Example 3A

If a plane leaves Istanbul (GMT+2) at 10:00 and lands
in New York (GMT -5) at 15:00 local time, calculate the
journey time?

plane arrives at
GMT is
plane departed at
GMT is
the journey time is




15:00 in New York (GMT-5)
20:00 (15:00 plus 5 hours)
10:00 from Istanbul (GMT+2)
08:00 (10:00 minus 2 hours)
20:00 minus 8:00  12 hours
PS: (10:00 Istanbul time  22:00 Istanbul time  15:00 New York
time) time advantage when traveling to west
Example 3B

If a plane leaves Istanbul (GMT+2) at 18:00 on 24th of
Feb and lands in Bishkek (GMT +5) at 02:00 on 25th of
Feb, calculate the journey time?

plane arrives at
GMT is
plane departed at
GMT is
the journey time is




02:00 on 25 Feb in Bishkek (GMT+5)
21:00 on 24 Feb (02:00 minus 5 hours)
18:00 on 24 Feb from Istanbul (GMT+2)
16:00 on 24 Feb (18:00 minus 2 hours)
21:00 minus 16:00  5 hours
PS: (18:00 Istanbul time  23:00 Istanbul time  02:00 on 25 Feb
Bishkek time) time lost when traveling to east (be careful with
IDL)
International Date Line




The International Date Line is the imaginary line on
earth that separates two consecutive calendar days.
The International Date Line is located half way around
the planet from Greenwich, England.
It is both 12 hours ahead of GMT and 12 hours behind
GMT.
It has been recognized as a matter of convenience.
Travelers to westward would discover that when they
returned home, one day more than they through has
passed. This first happened to Magellan.


When the International Date Line is crossed from the
east to the west, a calendar day must be added. When
the line is crossed from the west to the east, a calendar
day must be subtracted.
For example, the Fiji Islands (GMT +12) are west of
the International Date Line but the Samoan Islands
(GMT -11) are to the east. When it is 15:00 on Tuesday
in the Fiji Islands it is still 16:00 on Monday in the
Samoan Islands, even though the distance between the
groups of islands is no more than 800 miles.
Fiji (GMT+12)
Tuesday
Samoa (GMT -11)
Monday
IDL


For example, in a trip to the US from Japan on a
Monday morning, when the International Date Line is
crossed, the day changes to Sunday. On a reverse trip
on a Tuesday morning, when the line is crossed, the day
changes to Wednesday.
http://geography.miningco.com/cs/timetimezones/ind
ex_2.htm
The International Date Line is not a straight line. There
are zigs and zags in it to avoid spitting apart countries
into two days. Lately, in 1995, Kiribati moved a large
part of it to the east to be on the same side of the IDL.
http://aa.usno.navy.mil/faq/docs/international_date.ht
ml
Climate




One of the most important factors which affects where
people choose to travel (+proper clothing, likelihood of
rain, nature of the terrain, etc.) is climate, especially
true for rest and relaxation type vacations.
Climate and weather are different things.
Climate is the average state or condition over a long
period of time in an area. It refers to a large
geographical region. It is quite predictable.
Weather is the atmospheric condition (e.g. temperature,
precipitation, etc) at any given moment in a specific
(small) location. It can only be predicted on a short
term basis.
Factors affecting climate

There are four primary factors affecting the
climate of a location:
Latitude (location north or south of the equator)
 Mountains – altitude lowers temperature and
prevents weather patterns from crossing
 Proximity to major bodies of water
 Prevailing wind and ocean current patterns

Latitudinal position


The equator is the line of latitude which splits
the world into the Northern and Southern
Hemispheres. A destination’s climate changes
depending on how far it is from the equator.
Based on the distance from the equator, there
are 5 different temperature zones on earth.
Tropical Zone
 North & South Temperature Zones
 North & South Polar Zones



Tropical Zone: the area between “Tropic of
Cancer” (23,5° North Latitude) and the “Tropic
of Capricorn” (23,5° South Latitude). There are
only minimal changes in warm temperatures
throughout the year.
Caribbean islands lie within the tropics. On the
other hand, the Bahamas and Florida are located
just north of the Tropic of Cancer. Their
climate is considered subtropical where winter
days are cooler.



North Temperature Zone: the area between
the Arctic Circle (66,5° North Latitude) and the
Tropic of Cancer.
South Temperature Zone: the area between
the Antarctic Circle (66,5° South Latitude) and
the Tropic of Capricorn.
Locations within the temperature zones are
characterized by changes in temperature through
the four seasons. The northern the Tropic of
Cancer and the southern the Tropic of
Capricorn, the climate is colder.



North Polar Zone: the area between the Arctic
Circle and the North Pole.
South Polar Zone: the area between the
Antarctic Circle and the South Pole.
Polar Climate is normally below freezing at all
times.
The effects of mountains



Altitude has a cooling effect on climate
conditions. The higher the location, the cooler
the climate.
Lapse rate: for every 305m in elevation you rise,
the temperature drops 1,5 degree Celsius.
There is often winter snow near Los Angeles,
California, but nothing at the valley below.

Mountains, because of their height, prevent
many weather patterns from crossing from the
windward (the side of a mountain that the wind
hits, generally wetter and greener ) to the
leeward (the side of a mountain that is sheltered
from the wind, generally drier than the other
side) side. Thus on opposite sides of mountain
ranges, considerably different levels of
precipitation can be found.
Proximity to water



The presence of oceans or other large bodies of water
tend to moderate climatic conditions.
The heating and cooling of the oceans are major
influences on climate and weather.
Water generally warms and cools more slowly than
land. Ocean temperatures drop more slowly with the
approach of winter and warm more slowly with the
approach of summer than landmasses. For example, it
is usually warmer near the shore on a winter day than
farther inland. Coastal areas generally have more
moderate climates than interior areas at similar latitudes.
Wind and ocean current patterns


The temperature of ocean water changes by location
and by the location of major water current.
There are two important facts about water currents
which influence the water temperature;
 In the Northern Hemisphere, water currents move
in a clockwise direction, in the Southern
Hemisphere, they move in an opposite direction.
 While the currents move westward along the
equator, they get warmer, come together at the
equator, then when hit a landmass they depart from
each other.
E.g. Water is much colder in Los Angeles than
southern shores of Japan. The Caribbean Sea and
the eastern coast of the US has warmer water than
Europe’s Atlantic beaches (at the same latitude).
There are five major water currents;
 Gulf Stream (warm)
 Japan Current (warm)
 Humboldt (cold)
 California (cold)
 Benguela (cold)
Winds (weather patterns) also flow in currents (see
page 5 of your course book).





On the north and south of the tropics in the Northern
and Southern Hemispheres respectively, the wind
currents move from west to east (colder) “jet stream”
E.g. from Istanbul to Ankara. (West is colder, e.g.
Iceland is warmer in winter than locations in Greenland
and Canada on the same line of latitude). However, in
the tropics, they generally move from east to west
(warmer) “trade winds”.
Knowing which way the wind blows is important in
determining the flying time. E.g. Flying from San
Francisco to Tokyo is longer than the other way round.
Seasons



The relative positions of the sun and the earth
throughout the year determine the seasons.
The earth rotates around an imaginary line
passing through the poles, called the axis. This
line forms an angle (called the tilt) of 23,5° with
the perpendicular to the orbit of the Earth
around the Sun.
Seasons are opposite in the Northern and
Southern Hemispheres.
http://www.scienceu.com/observatory/articles/seasons/seasons.html



The seasons are then the result of this tilt of the
Earth's axis. There are differences in how the rays (sun
light) from the sun hit the earth throughout the year.
When the rays coming from the sun is relatively direct,
the weather gets warmer and the days are longer.
Twice each year, approximately March 21 and
September 21, the sun is directly overhead at noon on
the equator. On these equinox dates, virtually all points
on the earth receive twelve hours of sunlight.
Twice each year, approximately June 21 and December
21, the difference between night and day is maximum.
On these dates at noon, the sun is at its most northerly
or southerly position.
Seasons at Northern and Southern Hemispheres
Date
Northern
Hemisphere
Southern
Hemisphere
March 21
Spring
Autumn
June 21
Summer
Winter
September 23
Autumn
Spring
December 21
Winter
Summer
Climates of the World


To identify climates according to temperature
and precipitation values, various attempts have
been made. Koppen Classification System is the
most accepted one.
The Koppen Classification System has five basic
climatic types.
A - Tropical humid (tropical rain forest climates);
monthly temperature is above 18°C throughout the
year. There is no real winter. Rainfall is high,
precipitation exceeds evaporation which produces
lush vegetation.
 B - Dry Climates (includes Desert Climate)
 C - Mild mid-latitude (includes Mediterranean
Climate); which have pronounced changes of seasons.
The temperature in the coldest month is between
18°C and 0°C.
 D - Severe mid-latitude (Snow Climates); which have
average temperatures during the coldest month below
0°C and during the warmest month average 10°C.


E - Polar (Ice Climates); which have no true summer.
Average temperatures during the warmest month is
below 10°C.
http://www.eduplace.com/ss/maps/pdf/world_clim.pdf
http://geography.about.com/library/weekly/aa011700a.htm
http://mediterraneangardensociety.org/climate/map.cfm
http://biology.about.com/library/weekly/aa012303a.htm
http://www.panda.org/news_facts/education/virtual_wildlife/wild
_places/tropical_forests.cfm
http://www.enchantedlearning.com/biomes/label/desert/labelans
wers.shtml
Some Important Terms






Referring climate and weather;
Cyclone
Monsoons
Referring to measurement of area, distance and
temperature;
Centigrade/Fahrenheit
Hectare/Acre
Kilometer/Mile
Lapse Rate
Centigrade/Fahrenheit

Celsius to Fahrenheit
× 2 + 32

Fahrenheit to Celsius
- 32 / 2
http://www.cnn.com/weather
Hectare/Acre

Hectares to Acre
× 2,47

Acre to Hectares
× 0,4
Kilometer/Mile

Kilometers to Miles
× 0,6

Miles to Kilometers
× 1,6
http://goeurope.about.com/cs/maps/l/bl_euro_dist.htm