Historical Thinking: Part II
Creating a Historical Process
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Where We Finished
• Looked at Historical Thinking as a process that
was arranged in levels that built upon each
other
• The levels, or tiers, built from the general to
the specific
• Studied the first level of Historical Thinking
that dealt with students being able to acquire
historical knowledge
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Where We Will Go Now
• Look at a few issues that tend to impede
Historical Thinking in action
• Reinforce the idea of Historical Thinking being
a process of providing a framework for
students
• Examine the 2nd level of Historical Thinking
Skills
• Demonstrate an example of Historical
Processing
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The examples, documents, and many of the images used to illustrate this
presentation come from CICERO: History Beyond the Textbook.
You can sign up for a free trial of this incredible supplement by visiting
www.cicerohistory.com and sign up for the free trial.
Impediments to Historical
Understanding
• Sacred vs. Secular Time
• Obscures the time that come before and after
• Obfuscations
• Loss of common references
• Terms of discourse
• History as Apologetic
• Rage, demands for restitution
• Emergence of ethno-centric histories and diasporas
• Apologizing builds false hope for rehabilitating the
past
Peter N. Stearns, Peter Seixas, and Sam Wineberg, Knowing Teaching & Learning History (New York: NYU Press, 2000), 66-78.
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Impediments to Historical
Understanding
• Relativist Nihilism
• False idea that all interpretations of the past are
equally worthy and that there is no historical truth
• Becoming aware that the past is unique
• While there are parallels, the past is not
necessarily analogous to the present
• Reliance on Hindsight
• Prevents us from being fair to the actors and
events of the past
Peter N. Stearns, Peter Seixas, and Sam Wineberg, Knowing Teaching & Learning History (New York: NYU Press, 2000), 66-78.
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Thinking Like a Historian
A HISTORICAL THINKING
FRAMEWORK
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Tier 3
Context and Interpretation of
the Past
Tier 2
Analyzing and Evaluating
Historical Material
Tier 1
Building a Foundation
to Acquire Historical
Knowledge
A Scaffolded Approach
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The History Puzzle
History is not a
simple puzzle
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The History Jigsaw
Where do the pieces fit?
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Can You Start Here?
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Of the Puzzle Analogy in Action
AN EXAMPLE
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What do you see?
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Tier 1
Tier 1
Building a Foundation
to Acquire Historical
Knowledge
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Tier 2
Tier 2
Analyzing and Evaluating
Historical Material
Tier 1
Building a Foundation
to Acquire Historical
Knowledge
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The following skills will use the
historical knowledge that students have
gained and further the understanding
process through formal analysis and
evaluation.
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Analyzing Causation and Consequence
 Studying the differences between single-causation
and multi-causation of the events of the past
 Impact of the consequences of events and
decisions of the past, including those that were
desired, and those that were unintended
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Three Levels of Causation
1. Long-term
• Takes place over a period of years
• Individuals and groups cannot generally effect the
outcome
2. Intermediate
• Where groups come together to effect change
3. Short-term
• Almost immediate
Peter N. Stearns, Peter Seixas, and Sam Wineberg, Knowing Teaching & Learning History (New York: NYU Press, 2000), 56
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What were the causes of the American
Revolution?
We are looking for causation and consequence here
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Causes of the American Revolution
Let's Roll out the
Usual Suspects:
• The Enlightenment
• Salutary Neglect
• French and Indian
War
• Proclamation of 1763
• New Taxes
• Stamp Act
• Townshend Duties
• Boston Massacre
• Lexington & Concord
• Common Sense
Some Important
Others:
• Growing sense of Americanism
• Physical and Mental separation
• Structures of Government
• Radical Whig Ideology
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Teasing One Out
Salutary Neglect- For many years the British had taken a hands-off
approach to the colonies. Britain was making huge sums of money from
the colonies and did not want to tamper with a profitable enterprise.
When the British do begin to assert themselves in the colonies, the
American colonists resist and claim a history of self-rule.
The Single Cause or One of Many?
How do we know? What is the evidence?
What was the intended consequence(s)?
What were the unintended consequences?
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Differentiating
Long-Term
•
•
•
•
•
Short-Term
_________________
_________________
_________________
_________________
_________________





1600's
1754 1763 1765 1770 1775 1776
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_________________
_________________
_________________
_________________
_________________
Ranking
Least Important
Most Important
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
WHY?
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__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
Analyzing Change throughout the Past
• Determination of different types of change that
took place in the past, including political,
economic, and social
• Analysis of the impact of the different types of
change on the history of America
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An Act for the Gradual Abolition of Slavery, Pennsylvania, 1781
And Whereas Attempts may be made to evade this Act, by
introducing into this State, Negroes and Mulattos, bound by
Covenant to serve for long and unreasonable Terms of Years, if
the same be not prevented.
Be it therefore enacted by the Authority aforesaid, That no
Covenant of personal Servitude or Apprenticeship whatsoever
shall be valid or binding on a Negro or Mulatto for a longer
Time than Seven Years; unless such Servant or Apprentice
were at the Commencement of such Servitude or
Apprenticeship under the Age of Twenty one Years; in which
Case such Negro or Mulatto may be holden as a Servant or
Apprentice respectively, according to the Covenant, as the
Case shall be, until he or she shall attain the Age of twenty
eight Years but no longer.
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From CICERO Unit 5–Primary Sources section
The Emancipation Proclamation, 1862
That on the first day of January, in the year of our Lord one thousand
eight hundred and sixty-three, all persons held as slaves within any
State or designated part of a State, the people whereof shall then be
in rebellion against the United States, shall be then, thenceforward,
and forever free; and the Executive Government of the United States,
including the military and naval authority thereof, will recognize and
maintain the freedom of such persons, and will do no act or acts to
repress such persons, or any of them, in any efforts they may make
for their actual freedom.
Now, therefore I, Abraham Lincoln, President of the United States, by
virtue of the power in me vested as Commander-in-Chief, of the
Army and Navy of the United States in time of actual armed rebellion
against the authority and government of the United States, and as a
fit and necessary war measure for suppressing said rebellion …
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From CICERO Unit 8–Primary Sources section
“The historians method of stimulating
comprehension thus rests not just on relating
events in chronological order, but primarily
emphasizing how everything is continually
becoming …”
- Joseph Miller
Peter N. Stearns, Peter Seixas, and Sam Wineberg, Knowing Teaching & Learning History (New York: NYU Press, 2000), 134
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Understanding History through common
Themes and Ideas
 Establishment of the essential themes of history
and determination of their presence
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
Foundations of Freedom
Creation of an American Culture
Conflict and Compromise
Political and Social Movements
America on the World Stage
 Analysis of the essential themes in different
periods of history and across history
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Freedom
We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men are
created equal; that they are endowed by their Creator
with certain unalienable rights; that among these are life,
liberty, and the pursuit of happiness; that, to secure these
rights, governments are instituted among men, deriving
their just powers from the consent of the governed; that
whenever any form of government becomes destructive of
these ends, it is the right of the people to alter or to
abolish it, and to institute new government, laying its
foundation on such principles, and organizing its powers in
such form, as to them shall seem most likely to effect their
safety and happiness.
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From CICERO Unit 4–Primary Sources and Gallery sections
American Culture
The controversy that created Anne’s moral dilemma
began shortly after her arrival in the Massachusetts Bay
Colony in 1634. The daughter of a minister and a
devoted student of scripture, Hutchinson disagreed
with many practices she observed in the colonial
church. Hutchinson believed in the “Covenant of Grace,”
which meant salvation came directly from God. The
Puritans believed in grace but maintained people must
demonstrate the outward signs of salvation through
pious living and charitable works. Hutchinson dismissed
this as a “Covenant of Works” and accused church
officials of preaching a false doctrine. She soon began
sharing her views on Puritan theology. She even began
inviting people who agreed with her to participate in
religious meetings at her home.
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From CICERO Unit
3 – Heroes section
On the Mode of Education Proper in a Republic Benjamin Rush, 1798
I shall proceed in the next place, to inquire, what mode of
education we shall adopt so as to secure to the state all the
advantages that are to be derived from the proper
institution of youth; and here I beg leave to remark, that the
only foundation for a useful education in a republic is to be
laid in Religion. Without this there can be no virtue, and
without virtue there can be no liberty, and liberty is the
object and life of all republican governments.
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From CICERO Unit 3 – Primary Sources and Galleries section
Conflict and Compromise
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From CICERO Unit 4 – Gallery section
Olive Branch Petition, 1775
We shall decline the ungrateful task of describing the irksome
variety of artifices practiced by many of your Majestys ministers,
the delusive pretences, fruitless terrors, and unavailing
severities, that have from time to time been dealt out by them,
in their attempts to execute this impolitic plan, or of traceing
thro' a series of years past the progress of the unhappy
differences between Great Britain and these colonies which
have flowed from this fatal source.
Your Majestys ministers persevering in their measures and
proceeding to open hostilities for enforcing them, have
compelled us to arm in our own defence, and have engaged us
in a controversy so peculiarly abhorrent to the affection of your
still faithful colonists, that when we consider whom we must
oppose in this contest, and if it continues, what may be the
consequences, our own particular misfortunes are accounted by
us, only as parts of our distress.
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From CICERO Unit 4 –Primary Sources section
Political and Social Movements
THESE are the times that try men's souls. The summer soldier and
the sunshine patriot will, in this crisis, shrink from the service of
their country; but he that stands by it now, deserves the love and
thanks of man and woman. Tyranny, like hell, is not easily
conquered; yet we have this consolation with us, that the harder
the conflict, the more glorious the triumph. What we obtain too
cheap, we esteem too lightly: it is dearness only that gives every
thing its value. Heaven knows how to put a proper price upon its
goods; and it would be strange indeed if so celestial an article as
FREEDOM should not be highly rated. Britain, with an army to
enforce her tyranny, has declared that she has a right (not only to
TAX) but "to BIND us in ALL CASES WHATSOEVER" and if being
bound in that manner, is not slavery, then is there not such a thing
as slavery upon earth. Even the expression is impious; for so
unlimited a power can belong only to God.
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From CICERO Unit 4 –Primary Sources section
An Act for the Gradual Abolition of Slavery Pennsylvania, March 1, 1780
And whereas, the Condition of those Persons who have heretofore
been denominated Negro and Mulatto Slaves, has been attended
with Circumstances which not only deprived them of the common
Blessings that they were by Nature entitled to, but has cast them
into the deepest Afflictions by an unnatural Separation and Sale of
Husband and Wife from each other, and from their Children; an
Injury the greatness of which can only be conceived, by supposing
that we were in the same unhappy Case. In Justice therefore to
Persons so unhappily circumstanced and who, having no Prospect
before them whereon they may rest their Sorrows and their hopes
have no reasonable Inducement to render that Service to Society,
which they otherwise might; and also in grateful Commemoration
of our own happy Deliverance, from that State of unconditional
Submission, to which we were doomed by the Tyranny of Britain.
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From CICERO Unit 5 –Primary Sources section
Continued…
which not only deprived them of the common Blessings that they
were by Nature entitled to, but has cast them into the deepest
Afflictions by an unnatural Separation and Sale of Husband and
Wife from each other, and from their Children; an Injury the
greatness of which can only be conceived, by supposing that we
were in the same unhappy Case. In Justice therefore to Persons so
unhappily circumstanced and who, having no Prospect before them
whereon they may rest their Sorrows and their hopes have no
reasonable Inducement to render that Service to Society, which
they otherwise might; and also ingrateful Commemoration of our
own happy Deliverance, from that State of unconditional
Submission, to which we were doomed by the Tyranny of Britain.
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From CICERO Unit 5 –Primary Sources section
America on the World Stage
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Analysis of historical controversies and
their Impact on the past
 Identification of the key controversies and the
elements that made them volatile
 Analyzing the impact that key controversies have
had on the direction of the nation
 Tracing the impact of key controversies to their
modern conclusion(s)
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THESE are the times that try men's souls. The summer soldier
and the sunshine patriot will, in this crisis, shrink from the
service of their country; but he that stands by it now, deserves
the love and thanks of man and woman. Tyranny, like hell, is not
easily conquered; yet we have this consolation with us, that the
harder the conflict, the more glorious the triumph. What we
obtain too cheap, we esteem too lightly: it is dearness only that
gives every thing its value. Heaven knows how to put a proper
price upon its goods; and it would be strange indeed if so
celestial an article as FREEDOM should not be highly rated.
Britain, with an army to enforce her tyranny, has declared that
she has a right (not only to TAX) but "to BIND us in ALL CASES
WHATSOEVER" and if being bound in that manner, is not slavery,
then is there not such a thing as slavery upon earth. Even the
expression is impious; for so unlimited a power can belong only
to God.
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From CICERO Unit 4 – Primary Sources
General Washington expects on the arrival of the
French- Troops to collect 30,000 Troops to act in
conjunction; if not disappointed, New York is fixed on as
the first Object, if his numbers are not sufficient for that
Object, Canada is the second; of which I can inform you
in time, as well as of every other design. I have accepted
the command at West Point. As a Post in which I can
render the most essential services, and which will be in
my disposal. The mass of the People are heartily tired of
the War, and wish to be on their former footing - They
are promised great events from this year's exertion. If
disappointed you have only to persevere and the contest
will soon be at an end. The present Struggles are like the
pangs of a dying man, violent but of a short duration
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From CICERO Unit 4 – Primary Sources
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From CICERO Unit 4 – Primary Sources
Putting Pieces and Interpretations Together to Form
Knowledge
HISTORICAL PROCESSING
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Application is Built on Four
Premises
1. There must be a systematic approach to teaching
and learning history
2. Teaching history is not just lecture and learning
history is not just listening
3. Students learn history best by actually doing history
4. Intellectual engagement and investigation are
critical to teaching and learning history
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Danger of Relying on Narrative
History
 Narrative history helps students see the past as a
relatively simple story rather than as a rigorous
discipline or thought process.
 Textbooks simply reinforce the storytelling model
and perpetuate that outmoded view of history
 The narrative model does little to develop historical
reasoning or deep levels understanding
Example on next slide
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From Kings Mountain and Cowpens: Our Victory was Complete
From the Narrative
 What are the main
ideas in this selection?
 What imagery is
provided for the
reader?
 Is this a story or a
rigorous process?
 What does the reader
“get” out of this
selection?
 Are there enduring
understandings?
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Historical Processing
 The key component of a systematic plan for
teaching and learning history is to build in
consistent and rigorous mental processes
 Understanding is ultimately a function of
information processing
 Historical processing occurs best and most
efficiently when there are multiple sources
and a required constructive and analytic
product
Peter N. Stearns, Peter Seixas, and Sam Wineberg, Knowing Teaching & Learning History (New York: NYU Press, 2000), 375-386.
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Pitfalls of Having Students DO
History
1. Can focus on the trappings rather than the
thought processes
2. Copying behavior is not equivalent to
engaging in the processes of historians
3. Students do not have the basic assumptions
of historians and will have to be instructed
4. Without restructuring social interaction or
challenging beliefs the activities will yield
only ritualistic understanding
Peter N. Stearns, Peter Seixas, and Sam Wineberg, Knowing Teaching & Learning History (New York: NYU Press, 2000), 334-335.
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An Exercise in Processing
 We are going to look at three different excerpts
(A, B, & C) about a specific event in American
history
 The excerpts are from primary sources and from
combinations of primary and secondary sources
 What to do:
1. Read each excerpt and determine the main idea
2. Compare and contrast the excerpts with each other
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A
Letter from Nathanael Greene to Daniel Morgan
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B
From Kings Mountain and Cowpens: Our Victory was Complete
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C
Lt Colonel John Moncure’s The Cowpens Staff Ride and Battlefield Tour
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Corroboration
Kings Mountain
and Cowpens: Our
Victory Was
Complete
Nathanael
Greene to
Daniel Morgan
The Cowpens Staff Ride
and Battlefield Tour
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Analysis
• Part One
 What are the facts in
this instance?
 What do the facts
mean?
 How reliable are the
facts that have been
presented?
• Part two
 How do the facts
compare?
 What do the differences
imply?
Wineberg, Sam. "Reading and Rewriting History." Educational Leadership September, no. (2004): 42-45.
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Part Two:
Analysis and Evaluation
 Three major components
1. Factual knowledge is crucial for analysis and
evaluation
2. Knowledge itself is NOT an end
3. Dig deeper, ask questions, cross the boundary
between the known and unknown
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Crossing the Boundary
Use the information you have gathered
from the three documents to answer the
following questions:
1. What risks did Morgan and Greene face?
2. Was Morgan (and Greene) in a precarious
position? How do we know?
3. What was Greene’s “true” intention for
Morgan?
4. Is there anything “between the lines”?
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D
When I advance, I must either destroy Morgan’s corps, or
push it before me over the Broad river towards Kings
Mountain. The advance of the army should commence
(when your Lordship orders it to move) towards Kings
Mountain.
Communique from Banastre Tarleton to Lord Cornwallis
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Part Three:
Contextualize and Interpret
 Four main components:
1. Placing events, documents, and personalities into
their surroundings
2. Examining the economic, social, and political
conditions of the time
3. Compare and contrast information derived from a
number of sources
4. Examine changing interpretations
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Contextualizing & Interpreting
Use the information you have gathered
from the three documents to answer the
following questions:
• Placing into surroundings
1. Where are the armies in relation to each other?
2. Who is Greene? Cornwallis? Morgan? Tarleton?
3. What is the state of the American Revolution at
this point?
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Contextualizing & Interpreting
Use the information you have gathered
from the three documents to answer the
following questions:
• Changing or differing interpretations
1. How do the Moncure and Brown interpretations
differ?
2. How do the Moncure and Brown interpretations
compliment each other?
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Other Info
If you have any questions, comments, things you want to
see added to the sight, or just want to yell at me, you can
contact me at:
rbrown@aihe.info
704-470-4406
© 2009 R. Brown & 2010 AIHE