Chapter 2
Chapter 2. Methodology of Cross-Cultural Research
2.1 Multiple choice questions (key terms)
1. Which approach in cross-cultural psychology argues that psychological phenomena are
basically the same in all cultures?
a. relativist
b. ethnocentrism
c. meta-analysis
d. absolutist
e. content-analysis
Answer: d
2. The type of survey in which the researcher’s personal impact is very small because there is no
direct communication between the respondent and the interviewer is called: __________
a. content-analysis
b. direct survey
c. focus group methodology
d. indirect survey
e. psycho-biographical research
Answer: d
3. What is the name of the type of survey in which the interviewer maintains a direct
communication with the respondent and is able to provide feedback, repeat a question, or ask for
additional information?
a. indirect survey
b. direct survey
c. focus group methodology
d. content-analysis
e. psychobiographical research
Answer: b
4. __________ is a survey method used intensively both in academic and marketing research,
during which a group of 7-10 participants respond to specific social, political, or marketing
messages.
a. direct surveys
b. indirect surveys
c. content-analysis
d. group experiment
e. focus-group methodology
Answer: e
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5. The strategy used to establish the applicability of research findings obtained in one country or
culture to other countries or cultures is called the________.
a. comparativists strategy
b. meta-analysis strategy
c. application-oriented strategy
d. absolutist strategy
e. direct strategy
Answer: c
6. What is the name of the strategy that attempts to find similarities and differences in certain
statistical measures in a sample of cultures?
a. comparativists strategy
b. indirect strategy
c. application-oriented strategy
d. absolutist approach
e. content-analysis strategy
Answer: a
7. A research method that systematically organizes and summarizes both the manifest and latent
content of communication is called:
a. survey
b. focus-group methodology
c. latent analysis
d. content-analysis
e. arrangement method
Answer: d
8. Evidence that the methods selected for the study, measure the same phenomenon across other
countries or cultures chosen for the study is called:
a. correlation
b. equivalence
c. random sample
d. comparativists strategy
e. application-oriented strategy
Answer: b
9. _______ is the method of observation that involves the recording of people’s behavior in an
environment created by the researcher.
a. laboratory observation
b. content-analysis
c. meta-analysis
d. random sample
e. naturalistic observation
Answer: a
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10. What is the name for the quantitative analysis of a large collection of scientific results that
attempts to make sense of a diverse selection of data?
a. psychological analysis
b. content-analysis
c. meta-analysis
d. indirect surveys
e. laboratory observation
Answer: c
11. ________ is a method observation that involves the recording of people’s behavior in their
natural environments with little or no personal intervention.
a. natural witness testimony
b. content-analysis
c. meta-analysis
d. hidden-camera method
e. naturalistic observation
Answer: e
12. A longitudinal analysis of particular individuals, usually outstanding persons, celebrities, and
leaders, representing different countries or cultures is called:
a. investigative journalism
b. sensationalism
c. focus-group methodology
d. psychobiographical research
e. content-analysis
Answer: d
13. The ________ is a view is cross-cultural psychology that asserts that psychological
phenomena should be studies only from “within” the culture where these phenomena occur.
a. internal investigation
b. application-oriented strategy
c. relativist approach
d. cross-cultural approach
e. absolutist approach
Answer: c
14. A sample having characteristics that accurately reflect the characteristics of the population is
called:
a. representative sample
b. reliable sample
c. experimental sample
d. survey sample
e. convenience sample
Answer: a
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15. What is the name for the investigative method in which groups of people answer questions
about their opinions or their behavior?
a. content-analysis
b. survey
c. psychobiographical research
d. experiment
e. representative sample
Answer: b
2.2 Multiple choice questions (comprehension and application)
1. The established cross-cultural correlation linking an increase in poverty in a community or
country to an increase in violent crime would be an example of a_________ correlation.
a. positive
b. high
c. low
d. negative
e. high-low
Answer: a Section: Quantitative Approach
2. A clinical psychologists writes the following: “Psychological symptoms are similar around
the world. If you are anxious, you are restless, not focused, and very tense. Cultural differences
in symptoms are insignificant.” This reflects which cross-cultural approach to comparing
phenomena?
a. relativist
b. absolutist
c. correlational
d. systematic
e. random
Answer: b Section: Comparing Two Phenomena
3. A graduate student tells you that she is going to travel India to collect comparative data for her
dissertation. She indicates that she has chosen this country because she was born there and
believes she will have a relatively easy time finding a research sample. What type of sampling
strategy is she employing?
a. random sampling
b. systematic sampling
c. convenience sampling
d. experimental sampling
e. reliable sampling
Answer: c Section: Sample Selection
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4. Which of the following is a description of a systematic sample in cross-cultural research?
a. groups for this sample are selected according to an assumption or theory (for example,
collectivist groups and individualist groups)
b. groups for this sample are selected according to a systematic violation of a custom
c. cultural groups for the research are selected randomly
d. groups are selected so that each one represent one continent (Europe, Asia, Africa, America,
and Australia)
e. a sample including at least 3 countries
Answer: a Section: Sample Selection
5. If the strength of an ethnic group’s religious beliefs are said to be positively correlated with
their family values, which of the following statements is true?
a. A influences B but not the other way around
b. B influences A but not the other way around
c. A and B may influence each other
d. A and B are independent and do not influence each other
e. all of the above
Answer: c Section: Quantitative Approach
6. Thirteen exchange students received the following scores on a written aptitude test: 2, 5, 9, 3,
3, 4, 9, 6, 6, 9, 9,1, 1. What is the median score for this group?
a. 2
b. 3
c. 4.
d. 6.
e. 5
Answer: e Section: Quantitative Research in Cross-Cultural Psychology
7. In traditional cross-cultural psychology, cultural dichotomies were used to compare and
contrast:
a. observation and experiment
b. Western and non-Western cultures
c. content-analysis and survey methods
d. random and other types of sampling
e. excellent and poor test translations
Answer: b Section: Cultural Dichotomies
8. If you are conducting an experimental study assessing the impact of videos games upon the
academic performance of Japanese and American students, the dependent variable is _________.
a. number of hours spent on video games
b. skill of video-game playing
c. Japanese educational system
d. grades at school
e. U.S. educational system
Answer: d Section: Experimental Studies
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9. When assessing abuse against women, which of the following statements best reflects the
absolutist approach to cross-cultural studies?
a. abuse is defined differently in various places; we should not judge it using our standards
b. there should not be a cultural justification of abuse against women
c. women are tolerant to abuse if they are in love with the abuser
d. women should understand the context in which abuse takes place
e. family members are mostly responsible for abuse against women
Answer: b Section: Comparing two Phenomena
10. If you were to examine African and European fairy tales to find out how often they refer to
symptoms of mental illness, what kind of a methodology are you likely to use?
a. naturalistic observation
b. experiment
c. laboratory observation
d. content-analysis
e. sample selection
Answer: d Section: Content-analysis
11. Divorce rates around the world are negatively correlated with fertility rates. This means that
the more children a family has
a. the greater chance of divorce
b. the less chance of divorce
c. the greater chance that the husband older that his wife
d. the greater chance of family conflicts
e. the greater chance of conflicts with in-laws
Answer: b Section: Quantitative Approach
2.3 True/false questions
1. According to the absolutist approach in cross-cultural psychology, human behavior in its full
complexity can be understood only within the context of the culture in which it occurs.
Answer: F Section: Comparing Two Phenomena
2. A correlation establishes a cause-and-effect relationship between the variables.
Answer: F Section: Quantitative Approach
3. Qualitative and quantitative methods are not mutually exclusive and in many cases
psychologists choose both in their research.
Answer: T Section: Qualitative Approach
4. A typical focus group in psychological research consists of 100 people.
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Answer: F Section: Focus-Group Methodology
5. One of the most serious weaknesses of the focus-groups methodology in cross-cultural
research is that it typically relies on non-representative samples.
Answer: T Section: Sample Selection
6. A procedure called back-translation used in cross-cultural surveys usually helps researchers to
make sure that a translated version of a test (survey) is as close to the original as possible.
Answer: T Section: A Hidden Obstacle of Cross-Cultural Studies
7. In a random sample, any country, a person, or group has an equal chance of being selected in
the research sample.
Answer: T Section: Sample Selection
8. The term, “point of critical distinction” refers to the manners with which a person criticizes
other people.
Answer: F Section: On Similarities and Differences
9. According to the study by Matsumoto (1992), individuals from homogeneous societies tend to
detect and identify other people’s emotions less accurately than people from heterogeneous
societies do.
Answer: T Section: Avoiding Bias of Generalizations
10. Naturalistic observation refers to studies conducted in rural areas, away from large
metropolitan cities.
Answer: F Section: Observation in Cross-Cultural Psychology
11. In an experimental study designed to investigate academic skills, you ask students from five
countries to complete a difficult computerized math test. This is an example of a focus-group
methodology.
Answer: F Section: Focus-Group Methodology
2.4. Short-answer questions
1. There are three basic measures of central tendency: the mode, the median, and_________.
Answer: the mean
Section: Quantitative Research in Cross-Cultural Psychology
2. In cross-cultural psychology the term “etic” refers to the absolutist approach, while the term
“emic” refers to the_________.
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Answer: relativist approach
Section: Comparing Two Phenomena
3. What type of measurement scale is being used in the following example: “Please rank order
your favorite forms of transportation in New York City.”
□ bus
□ underground metro □ cab
□ own car □ bike
Answer: ordinal
Section: Quantitative Approach: Measurement Scales
4. After developing a therapeutic technique for treating depression you decide that you want to
determine its effectiveness cross-culturally. You are having difficulty choosing the countries for
your sample. Your colleagues in Canada, Bulgaria, and China offer to help. This would be an
example of what type of sampling strategy?
Answer: convenience
Section: Sample Selection
5. Imagine you have developed a test that measures a person “readiness” to get married and start
a family. You find that the test is a good predictor of successful marriages. You then decide to
pursue an application-oriented strategy. What are you trying to determine?
Answer: try applicability in other countries
Section: Major Steps for Preparation of a Cross-Cultural Study
6. If you created an experimental procedure to study the relationship between people’s body
weight and the way they are treated by their peers, the independent variable in your experiment
would be _____
Answer: body weight
Section: Experimental Studies
7. What terms stands for “research of research in psychological studies?”
Answer: meta-analysis
Section: Meta-Analysis
8. What racial group has the highest median income per household?
Answer: Asian (and Pacific Islander)
Section: Quantitative Research
9. Cross-cultural researchers pursue four major goals: to describe, to explain, to control,
and_________.
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Answer: to predict
Section: Goals of Cross-Cultural Research
10. If you email you question to people in different countries but to not have an opportunity to
communicate with them, what type of a survey are you conducting?
Answer: indirect
Section: Survey Methods
11. What is cultural response bias in surveys?
Answer: the bias caused by the desire of participants to give culturallyappropriate answers
Section: On Similarities and Differences
12. What is one of the most serious weaknesses of the focus-groups methodology in crosscultural research (this weakness is related to sample selection)?
Answer: the sample is not representative
Section: Focus Group Methodology
13. Which procedure used in cross-cultural surveys usually helps researchers to make sure that a
translated version of a test (survey) is as close to the original as possible?
Answer: Back translation
Section: A Hidden Obstacle of Cross-Cultural Studies
2.5 Essay questions
1. Explain the concept of cultural dichotomies. Give examples.
2. Why should results of telephone (including cell phone) surveys in some countries be
approached with caution?
3. Give an example of the comparativist strategy in cross-cultural research.
4. Describe the differences between the absolutist and relativist approaches in cross-cultural
psychology.
5. How would you explain the point of critical distinction (PCD)?
6. Explain why the point of critical distinction (PCD) is thought of as a “conceptual fork” when
comparing two phenomena. Why is this a useful conceptualization in the field of cross-cultural
psychology?
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6. Name and describe the three steps that should be taken when translating a test (or survey) for a
cross-cultural study.
7. Discuss the four recommendations made for assessing cross-cultural research.
8. One of the substantial weaknesses of cross-cultural research is its overwhelming reliance on
research samples comprised of students. Why is it a weakness?
9. To receive reliable survey information in countries under authoritarian regimes can often be
extremely difficult. Why? Give several reasons.
10. Studies show that people in countries such as Japan and Korea tend to evaluate themselves
critically in surveys; they tend to consider self as not necessarily hard-working. Explain the
reasons for such cultural response bias.
11. Consider a situation. As a psychologist, you have developed a test that measures a person’s
“readiness” to get married and start a family. You find that the test is a fine predictor if a person
could have a successful marriage. Next, you decide to pursue an application-oriented strategy for
your test. What does it mean? What will you do?
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