The Elements of Fiction
New American Lecture
What Is Plot?
Plot is “what happens” in a story—the sequence of
related events that makes a story hang together.
Exposition
The first part of a story is the exposition. The
writer introduces
• a character who wants
something very much
• the setting
Conflict
The main conflict in a story may be internal or
external.
• External conflict: a
struggle between a
character and an
outside force
• Internal conflict:
a struggle within
the character’s own
heart or mind
External:
climbing wall
Internal:
fear
Types of Conflict
• Internal conflict
– man vs. himself
• External conflict
–
–
–
–
man vs. society
man vs. man
man vs. nature
man vs.
supernatural
Exposition and Conflict
Quick Check
In a forest of mixed growth somewhere
on the eastern spurs of the Carpathians,
a man stood one winter night watching
and listening, as though he waited for
some beast of the woods to come within
the range of his vision and, later, of his
rifle. But the game for whose presence
he kept so keen an outlook was none
that figured in the sportsman’s calendar
as lawful and proper for the chase; Ulrich
von Gradwitz patrolled the dark forest in
quest of a human enemy.
from “The Interlopers” by Saki
What is the
exposition?
What conflict
does Ulrich face?
Rising Action
Next, a series of complications arises—events
that make the character’s situation more difficult
and heighten the suspense.
Complication:
“If only on this wild night, in this dark, lone
spot, he might come across Georg
Znaeym, man to man, with none to
witness-that was the wish that was
uppermost in his thoughts. And as he
stepped round the trunk of a huge beech
he came face to face with the man he
sought.”
from “The Interlopers” by Saki
Climax
The plot reaches a climax. The climax
• is the most exciting or suspenseful moment
• decides the outcome of the conflict
“Ulrich von Gradwitz found himself stretched on the ground,
one arm numb beneath him and the other held almost as
helplessly in a tight tangle of forked branches, while both
legs were pinned beneath the fallen mass.” . . . .
“At his side, so near that under ordinary circumstances he
could almost have touched him, lay Georg Znaeym, alive and
struggling, but obviously as helplessly pinioned down as
himself.
from “The Interlopers” by Saki
Resolution
The last part of the plot is the resolution, or
denouement.
• The problems are resolved in some way.
• The story ends—sometimes happily,
sometimes not.
“Who are they?” asked Georg quickly, straining his eyes to
see what the other would gladly not have seen.
“Wolves.”
from “The Interlopers” by Saki
Questions Around the Wheel
Mastery
What are the six elements
of plot?
Understanding
Why is the exposition so
important to the plot?
Interpersonal
Think about a short story
you have read. What was
your favorite part of the
story?
Self-Expressive
What would happen if a
story had no conflict?
Mapping a Short Story
You will chart the plot of the story we will read by
using a diagram like the one below. Copy this
example so that you may successfully complete
the mapping assignment.
Complications
Event
Climax
Event
Event
Resolution
Basic Situation
Setting
Setting
Setting draws us into the world of a story. Details
of setting tell us
• where and when events are
happening
• how the situation feels
• who the characters are
• what challenges the
characters face
Character
The Protagonist
The protagonist is the main character and the
focus of readers’ attention. A good protagonist
• is complicated and
contradictory, like a real
person
• has both strengths and
weaknesses
The Antagonist
The antagonist is the force that blocks the
protagonist from getting what he or she wants.
The antagonist may be
• another character
• a nonhuman force
Direct Characterization
Direct Characterization—The writer tells readers
directly what a character is like.
Oh, but he was a tightfisted
hand at the grindstone,
Scrooge! A squeezing,
wrenching, grasping, scraping,
clutching, covetous old sinner!
from “A Christmas Story” by
Charles Dickens
Indirect Characterization
Indirect Characterization—The writer reveals
characters’ traits through
• appearance
• dialogue
• private thoughts
• actions
• effects on others
Dynamic Characters
Dynamic characters change or grow as a result
of the story’s action. They
• are main characters
• gain a new understanding, make an important
decision, or take a crucial action
• help reveal the meaning of the story
Believable changes
Static Characters
Static characters are usually exactly the same as
the story ends as they were when it began. They
• are almost always subordinate characters
• support the plot without distracting readers
from the main action—the protagonist’s conflict
and growth
Flat and Round Characters
Flat characters
• have only one or two
character traits
• can be described in a
few words
• are usually minor
characters
Flat and Round Characters
Round characters
• have many
character traits
• are complex, like
real people
• are often major
characters
Questions Around the Wheel - Character
Mastery
Interpersonal
Define indirect and direct
characterization.
Think of a movie, show
or story you’ve
read/viewed recently.
Classify the characters.
Understanding
Self-Expressive
Compare and contrast
dynamic and static
characters.
What information would
have to be added to the
play Romeo and Juliet to
make Paris a round
character rather than a flat
character?
Point of View
What Is Point of View?
Point of view is the vantage point from which a
writer narrates or tells a story.
Omniscient Point of View
In the omniscient point of view, the all-knowing
narrator
• plays no part in the story
• knows and can tell what
any character is thinking
and feeling
• knows what is happening
in all of the story’s
settings
Omniscient Point of View
Quick Check
The feud might, perhaps, have died
down or been compromised if the
personal ill will of the two men had not
stood in the way; as boys they had
thirsted for one another’s blood, as men
each prayed that misfortune might fall
on the other, and this wind-scourged
winter night. . . .
from “The Interlopers” by Saki
How can you
tell that this
excerpt is
written from the
omniscient point
of view?
Third-Person-Limited Point of View
In third-person-limited point of view, the
narrator
• plays no part in the
story
• knows and can tell
what a single character
is thinking and feeling
Third-Person-Limited Point of View
Quick Check
She grieved over the shabbiness of her
apartment, the dinginess of the walls,
the worn-out appearance of the chairs,
the ugliness of the draperies. All these
things, which another woman of her
class would not even have noticed,
gnawed at her and made her furious.
from “The Necklace” by Guy De Maupassant
How can you
tell that this
excerpt is
written from
the thirdperson-limited
point of view?
First-Person Point of View
In first-person point of view, the narrator
• is a character in the story
• knows and can tell only
what he or she thinks and
feels
• may be reliable and
trustworthy or an
unreliable narrator
First-Person Point of View
Quick Check
The thousand injuries of Fortunato I
had borne as best I could; but when he
ventured upon insult, I vowed revenge.
You, who so well know the nature of
my soul, will not suppose, however,
that I gave utterance to a threat. At
length I would be avenged; this was a
point definitively settled—but the very
definitiveness with which it was
resolved precluded the ideas of risk.
from “The Cask of Amontillado” by EA Poe
How can you
tell that this
excerpt is
written from
the firstperson point of
view?
Questions Around the Wheel
Mastery
Interpersonal
List as many first and
If you were making a
third person pronouns as movie of “The
you can.
Interlopers” where would
you place the camera?
Why?
Understanding
Why are most fairy tales
told from the omniscient
point of view?
Self-Expressive
Imagine Romeo and
Juliet told from Lady
Capulet’s point of view.
Irony
What Is Irony?
Irony is the contrast between expectation and
reality. Three kinds of irony are
• verbal irony
• situational irony
• dramatic irony
Verbal Irony
In verbal irony, a speaker says one thing but
means the opposite. Verbal irony
• is the simplest kind of irony
• can become sarcasm if taken to a harsh
extreme
Situational Irony
In situational irony, what actually happens is the
opposite of what is expected or appropriate.
Situational irony
• is often humorous
• may mock human plans and intentions
Situational Irony
Read this sentence from Hanson W. Baldwin’s
R.M.S. Titanic.
. . . she was fresh from Harland and
Wolff’s Belfast yards, strong in the
strength of her forty-six thousand tons
of steel, bent, hammered, shaped, and
riveted through the three years of her
slow birth.
Explain the situational irony in this ship sinking on
its first voyage.
Dramatic Irony
Dramatic irony occurs when the reader or the
audience knows something important that the
character does not know. Dramatic irony
• adds greatly to the tension in stories, plays,
and movies
• heightens the sense of humor in comedies and
deepens the sense of dread in tragedies
Review
Quick Check
After tripping over his own
feet, the teen exclaims, “That
was graceful!”
The movie audience knows
that a hostile alien is just past
the door. “Don’t go in there!”
one viewer yells at the screen.
The guest opens his mouth
to compliment the chef, but
before he can speak, he burps
long and loudly.
Identify each
item as one of
the following:
• verbal irony
• situational
irony
• dramatic irony
Questions Around the Wheel
Mastery
When you are speaking
to someone, what other
clues, besides tone of
voice, would help you
recognize that someone
is using verbal irony?
Understanding
How would a story’s
point of view affect your
ability to recognize
verbal irony?
Interpersonal
“How ironic!” or “Isn’t
that ironic?” are
statements you may
have heard. What were
the circumstances?
Self-Expressive
Create an ironic situation
and describe how it is
ironic.
Theme
What Is Theme?
A work’s theme is the central idea or insight about
human life that it reveals.
Many elements contribute to a work’s theme.
characters
plot
Theme
conflict
setting
What Is Theme?
The theme of a work of literature is its root. It
• gives meaning to the work’s characters and
events
• reveals the writer’s personal attitude toward the
world and the people in it
• may give readers insight into life and human
nature or help them realize the importance of
what they already know
What Is Theme?
A work’s theme is sometimes confused with its
• subject—what the story is about
• plot—the events of the story
• moral—the rule of conduct that the story
teaches
These parts of a story are important, but they are
not its theme.
What Is Theme?
Quick Check
Listen to your elders.
Three siblings go swimming in a creek
even though their grandfather warns
them not to. One sibling is almost
swept away by the current.
The story of a dangerous swim
Young people’s overconfidence can put
them in danger; young people often
learn a lesson the hard way.
Identify each
item as one of
the following:
• subject
• plot
• moral
• theme
Discovering a Theme
Identifying a work’s theme is not easy but can
help the reader understand the work more fully.
• The theme is rarely stated outright and must be
inferred.
• A long and complex
work may present
more than one
theme, or insight
into human life.
Discovering a Theme
Here are some guidelines for discovering theme.
• Think about the title.
• Consider how the protagonist changes.
• Pay attention to story’s conflict and how it is
resolved.
• Consider the work as a whole.
Discovering a Theme
Think about the title.
Readers may find clues to the theme in the first
words they read, the work’s title.
“The Bass, the River,
and Sheila Mant”
How might these three
things—a fish, a river,
and a girl—affect the
main character’s life?
Discovering a Theme
Consider how the protagonist changes.
Often what the main character learns about life is
the truth the writer wants to reveal to the reader.
At the beginning . . .
There was a summer in my life when
the only creature that seemed lovelier
to me than a largemouth bass was
Sheila Mant. I was fourteen.
Discovering a Theme
Consider how the protagonist changes.
Often what the main character learns about life is
the truth the writer wants to reveal to the reader.
At the end . . .
Poor Sheila! Before the month was
over, the spell she cast over me was
gone, but the memory of that lost bass
haunted me all summer and haunts me
still. . . . I never made the same
mistake again.
Discovering a Theme
Pay attention to story’s conflict and how it is
resolved.
Conflict is central to most literature and often
contains clues to the theme.
“I think fishing’s dumb,” she said, making a face.
“I mean, it’s boring and all. Definitely dumb.”
. . . I would have given anything not to appear
dumb in Sheila’s severe and unforgiving eyes.
What conflict does the protagonist face? How does
he initially respond to the conflict?
Discovering a Theme
Consider the work as a whole.
Other elements of the story, such as setting or
characters, may also contribute to the theme.
“Eric said I have the figure to model, but
I thought I should get an education first. I
mean, it might be a while before I get
started and all. I was thinking of getting my
hair styled, more swept back . . . ?”
How does the development of
Sheila’s subordinate character add to
your understanding of the theme?
Stating a Theme
You should use at least one complete sentence to
state the theme of a work.
• Express the theme as a generalization about
life or human nature. Do not refer to specific
characters or events in the work.
“The Bass, the River, and Sheila
Mant” reveals the extremes to which
people will go when they are in love
and reminds readers that these
sacrifices often fail to win love.
Note
Practice
Choose a story that meant something
to you. Use this chart to help you discover and
then state the story’s theme. Compare your
statement with those of other students who chose
the same story.
Steps to Determining a Theme
What the title suggests:
How the main character changes:
How the conflict is resolved:
What, in general, the story reveals about life and people:
The story’s theme:
Tying It All Together
What do short stories and Kool Aid
have in common?
Write a one page QuickWrite on this question.